Aplicaciones informáticas de propósito general

7/23/2019 Aplicaciones informticas de propsito general

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]uf`uninkho Ghgkwhkn3 N}bhknkhfod{ Hojfuiwhkn{ gd ]uf}{hwf @dodunb Kfidukhf

> ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

5=>5&5=>;

Khkbf Jfuinwhzf gd @ungf Idghf Kfidukhf r ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah]fbf

HD[]UFJD[FUIQHIFWUTDEN

]UF@UNINKHOGDN]BHKNKHFOD[HOJFUIWHKN[


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5 ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

oghkd

]UD[DOWNKHO GDB WWTBF //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ;KFOWDQWF [FKHF)NKNGIHKF X KTBWTUNB ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 4FECDWHZF[ ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// :KFOWDOHGF[ GD BN ]UF@UNINKHO /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 1WDI]FUNBHSNKHO /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// >1IDWFGFBF@N GHGKWHKN///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// >1UDKTU[F[ GHGKWHKF[ /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 5;

KUHWDUHF[ GD DZNBTNKHO/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 57]UFKDGHIHDOWF[ GD DZNBTNKHO //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 58KUHWDUHF[ GD KNBHJHKNKHO //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ;5IDGHGN[ GD NWDOKHO NB NBTIONGF KFO ODKD[HGNGD[ DGTKNWHZN[D[]DKJHKN[///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ;7WDKOFBF@N[ GD BN HOJFUINKHO X KFITOHKNKHO ////////////////////////////////// ;4

EHEBHF@UNJN///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ;4


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; ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

]UD[DOWNKHO GDB WWTBF

Bn{ kfi}dwdokhn{ }ufjd{hfonbd{ gd bf{ wwtbf{ gd Kfidukhf x Inuldwho` {d udjhdudonb gd{nuufbbf x n}bhknkho gd bn{ jtokhfod{ gd }bnohjhknkho" fu`nohsnkho x `d{whogd zdown{" kfi}un{" nbinkdonihdowf x gh{wuhetkho gd ehdod{ x {duzhkhf{ do db

iehwf onkhfonb d howduonkhfonb" fu`nohsnkho x `d{who gd d{wnebdkhihdowf{kfidukhnbd{" ngihoh{wunkho x kfidukhnbhsnkho gd {duzhkhf{ gd wuno{}fuwd"}bnohjhknkho x fu`nohsnkho gd bn dq}bfwnkho gd {duzhkhf{ gd wuno{}fuwd wduud{wud"ho{}dkkho gd kfo{tif x nwdokho n kfo{tihgfud{ x kbhdowd{/

Db kfoctowf gd bf{ wwtbf{ }ufjd{hfonbd{ gd Kfidukhf x Inuldwho` }udwdogd kteuhubn{ odkd{hgngd{ gd jfuinkho kfuud{}foghdowd{ n ohzdbd{ gd ktnbhjhknkho}ufjd{hfonbd{ gd bf{ kni}f{ gd nkwhzhgng }ufgtkwhzn gd gd}nuwnidowf{ kfidukhnbd{"kfidukhf hogd}doghdowd3 nb }fu inxfu x nb }fu idofu" kfidukhf howdùngf xn{fkhngf" n`dokhn{ kfidukhnbd{" `d{who gdb wuno{}fuwd" {duzhkhf{ nb kfo{tihgfu/

Bn{ ktnbhjhknkhfod{ }ufjd{hfonbd{ hgdowhjhkngn{ x dq}ud{ngn{ do bf{ }dujhbd{ gd bf{wwtbf{ ud{}fogdo n bn{ odkd{hgngd{ gd ktnbhjhknkho do db {dìdowf gdb wunencfwkohkf gd bf{ }ufkd{f{ wdkofb`hkf{ gd3 hozd{wh`nkho kfidukhnb" Inuldwho`"Idukanogh{ho`" }tebhkhgng x }ufifkho" bf`{whkn kfidukhnb" wunwnihdowf gdhojfuinkho kfidukhnb" }ufùninkho gdb wujhkf gdb wuno{}fuwd wduud{wud xfu`nohsnkho gd {h{wdin{ gd hojfuinkho nb kfo{tihgfu/

Db UG >:44&>887" d{wnebdkd db Wwtbf gd Wkohkf do Kfidukhf x {t{kfuud{}foghdowd{ Do{dnosn{ Iohin{< db Ktuuktbf an {hgf d{wnebdkhgf }fu db

U/G/ >:0=&>887" gd 55 gd Ctbhf ~td gdjhod ton{ afun{ wfwnbd{ }nun bn kfo{dktkhogdb nbtiof gd bn{ kn}nkhgngd{ wduihonbd{ }ud{downgn{ do bn Do{dnosn{ Iohin{/

Bn ofuinwhzn" d{wnebdkd bn{ {h`thdowd{ kn}nkhgngd{ }ufjd{hfonbd{ }nun d{wd wkohkf3

Nohinu bf{ }towf{ gd zdown gd d{wnebdkhihdowf{ gdghkngf{ n bnkfidukhnbhsnkho gd }ufgtkwf{ f {duzhkhf{" kfo{h`thdogf bf{ fecdwhzf{d{wnebdkhgf{ do bn{ ghjdudowd{ }ufifkhfod{ x fjduwn{ x n}bhknu bn{ wkohkn{ gdIdukanogh{ho`/

Zdogdu }ufgtkwf{ f {duzhkhf{ twhbhsnogf bn{ wkohkn{ gd zdown ngdktngn{ n bnwh}fbf`n gdb kbhdowd x n bf{ kuhwduhf{ d{wnebdkhgf{ }fu bn fu`nohsnkho"dq}ud{ogf{d gtunowd db }ufkd{f kfo {d`tuhgng" }udkh{ho x djhknkhn/

Nwdogdu" hojfuinu x n{d{funu nb kbhdowd kfo ghbh`dokhn x kfuwd{n" hgdowhjhknogf{t{ odkd{hgngd{ x {nwh{jnkhdogf bn{ ih{in{ do db inukf gd bn{ }f{hehbhgngd{ gdbn di}ud{n/


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Udnbhsnu bn{ f}dunkhfod{ gd kfeuf ~td {d fuh`hono do db gd{nuufbbf gd bnnkwhzhgng kfidukhnb" twhbhsnogf gd inodun djhkns bn wdkofbf`n dqh{wdowd xzduhjhknogf ~td bf{ idghf{ gd }n`f kti}bdo bn ofuinwhzn zh`dowd/

Kfowufbnu ~td bn{ f}dunkhfod{ gd udkd}kho" inoh}tbnkho" gh{wuhetkho howduonx dq}dghkho gd iduknokn{ {d djdkwno {h`thdogf bf{ }ufkdghihdowf{d{wnebdkhgf{ x kti}bhdogf bn ofuinwhzn gd {d`tuhgng d ah`hdod/

Kfowufbnu ~td bn{ kfoghkhfod{ j{hkn{ x niehdownbd{ gdb nbinko {fo bn{ngdktngn{ n bn onwtunbdsn gd bf{ }ufgtkwf{ x ~td {t nkfoghkhfonihdowf d{w gdnktdugf kfo bn{ dqh`dokhn{ gd bn ofuinwhzn/

Fu`nohsnu to }d~tdf nbinko udnbhsnogf bn{ f}dunkhfod{ odkd{nuhn{ gd}bnohjhknkho gd utwn{ howduon{" gd gh{wuhetkho gd bn{ iduknokn{ dhgdowhjhknogf bn{ dqh{wdokhn{ gh{}fohebd{ do wfgf ifidowf/

Ngihoh{wunu x `d{whfonu ton }d~tdn di}ud{n f d{wnebdkhihdowf kfidukhnb"udnbhsnogf bn nkwhzhgng kfo djhknkhn x udownehbhgng/

]f{ddu ton zh{ho `bfenb d howdùngn gdb }ufkd{f kfidukhnb do {t{ n{}dkwf{wkohkf{" fu`nohsnwhzf{ x atinof{/

Ngn}wnu{d n otdzn{ {hwtnkhfod{ bnefunbd{ `dodungn{ kfif kfo{dktdokhn gd bf{kniehf{ }ufgtkhgf{ }fu bn n}nuhkho gd otdzn{ wdkofbf`n{ udbnkhfongn{ kfo {t}ufjd{ho/

Dcdktwnu to kfoctowf gd nkkhfod{ gd kfowdohgf }fbhwkohkf x&f }fbhjtokhfonb" gdjfuin ntwofin do db inukf gd bn{ wkohkn{ }uf}hn{ gd {t }ufjd{ho encfiwfgf{ d{wnebdkhgf{/

Inowdodu udbnkhfod{ jbthgn{ kfo bf{ ihdieuf{ gdb ùt}f jtokhfonb do db ~tdd{w howdùngf" kfbnefunogf do bn kfo{dktkho gd bf{ fecdwhzf{ n{hòngf{ nbùt}f" ud{}dwnogf db wunencf gd bf{ gdi{" }nuwhkh}nogf nkwhznidowd do bnfu`nohsnkho x gd{nuufbbf gd wnudn{ kfbdkwhzn{ x kff}dunogf do bn {t}dunkho gdbn{ ghjhktbwngd{ ~td {d }ud{dowdo/

Inowdodu kfitohknkhfod{ djdkwhzn{ do db gd{nuufbbf gd {t wunencf x do d{}dkhnbdo f}dunkhfod{ kfidukhnbd{" gd zdown x nwdokho nb kbhdowd" hojfuinogf x{fbhkhwnogf nxtgn n ~thdo }ufkdgn ktnogf {d }ufgtskno kfowho`dokhn{ do bnf}dunkho/

Ud{fbzdu }ufebdin{ x wfinu gdkh{hfod{ hoghzhgtnbd{" {h`thdogf ofuin{d{wnebdkhgn{ f }udkdgdowd{ gdjhohgf{ gdowuf gdb iehwf gd {t kfi}dwdokhn"kfo{tbwnogf kfo {t{ {t}duhfud{ bn gdkh{ho ngf}wngn ktnogf bf{ djdkwf{ ~td {d}tdgno }ufgtkhu nbwdudo bn{ kfoghkhfod{ ofuinbd{ gd {d`tuhgng" fu`nohsnkho fdkfoihkn{/


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Bn{ tohgngd{ gd kfi}dwdokhn ~td d{wnebdkd db wwtbf {fo3

>/ Fu`nohsnu x kfowufbnu bn{ f}dunkhfod{ gd nbinkdoncd gd }ufgtkwf{/5/ Udnbhsnu bn{ nkwhzhgngd{ gd nohinkho gdb }towf gd zdown/;/ Udnbhsnu bn{ f}dunkhfod{ gd zdown gd }ufgtkwf{ x&f {duzhkhf{/7/ Ngihoh{wunu x `d{whfonu to }d~tdf d{wnebdkhihdowf kfidukhnb/Wun{ d{wn ni}bhn }ud{downkho gdb khkbf" znif{ n kdowunuof{ do db gd{nuufbbf gd bn}ufùninkho gdb igtbf gd N}bhknkhfod{ Hojfuiwhkn{ Gd ]uf}{hwf @dodunb/

KFOWDQWF [FKHF)NKNGIHKF X KTBWTUNB

Dowfuof x kdowuf

D{wn }ufùninkho {d gd{nuufbbn }nun to Ho{whwtwf gd Dgtknkho [dktognuhn gfogd{d hi}nuwdo khkbf{ jfuinwhzf{ gd ùngf idghf x ùngf {t}duhfu gd bn jnihbhn gdKfidukhf x Inuldwho`" kfokudwnidowd" bn{ do{dnosn{ kfogtkdowd{ n bn fewdokhowwtbf gd Wkohkf do Kfidukhf x gdb wwtbf gd Wkohkf [t}duhfu do @d{whoKfidukhnb x Inuldwho`" ud{}dkwhznidowd/

Db kdowuf {d doktdowun do ton bfknbhgng {tetuenon" Efnghbbn gdb Ifowd" gfogd {dfe{duzn to hi}fuwnowd zfbtido gd }febnkho hoihùnowd n{ kfif nbtiof{}ufzdohdowd{ gd bfknbhgngd{ kduknon{ !Zhbbnzhkhf{n" I{wfbd{" Nbkfuko" Zhbbnben"Incngnafogn" ]fstdbf x Inguhg Kn}hwnb(/ Db ohzdb {fkhfdkfoihkf d{ idghf nbwf"

gh{}fohdogf bn inxfun gdb nbtiongf gd wdbjfof izhb !hokbt{f kfo kfodqho nhowduodw(" howduodw gd nbwn zdbfkhgng do db af`nu x fwuf{ gh{}f{hwhzf{ dbdkwuohkf{!}fuwwhb" wnebdwn{" i};" dwk/(/

Dwn}n x Igtbf

Jfuinkho }ufjd{hfonb d{}dkjhkn gd ùngf idghf/ Igtbf }ufjd{hfonb 4!wuno{zdu{nb(3N}bhknkhfod{ hojfuiwhkn{ gd }uf}{hwf `dodunb" gdb Wwtbf gdWkohkf do Kfidukhf d{wnebdkhgf }fu db U/G/ >:44&>887 gd 55 gd Ctbhf x {t{kfuud{}foghdowd{ Do{dnosn{ Iohin{/ Db ktuuktbf gdb wwtbf bf d{wnebdkd db U/G/

>:0=&>887" gd 55 gd Ctbhf/

Nbtiof{ n bf{ ~td zn ghuh`hgn d{wn }ufùninkho

Db ùt}f nb ~td {d ghuh`d d{wn }ufùninkho d{ itx otiduf{f x itd{wun to howdu{itx znuhnebd kfo ud{}dkwf nb khkbf do `dodunb x nb igtbf do }nuwhktbnu/ D{wndo{dnosn of d{ febh`nwfuhn x" }fu wnowf" db nbtiongf dbh`d dowud fwuf{ wnowf{ khkbf{"


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: ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

n~tdb ~td ud{}fogd do inxfu idghgn n {t{ `t{wf{" howdud{d{" ho~thdwtgd{ x}uf}{hwf{ gd jtwtuf/ Nb`tof{ gd dbbf{" {dno f of idofud{ gd dgng" zhdodofebh`ngf{ }fu {t{ }ngud{/

Otd{wun dq}duhdokhn gditd{wun ~td bf{ ùt}f{ {tdbdo d{wnu jfuingf{ }fu to

nbtiongf adwdufòdf/ [t{ ohzdbd{ gd jfuinkho {fo itx ghzdu{f{" {h ehdo ano gdd{wnu do }f{d{ho gdb Wwtbf gd @ungtngf do D[F f d~thznbdowd f anedu nkkdghgfidghnowd bn {t}dunkho gd ton }utden gd nkkd{f d{}dkjhkn/ Hogd}doghdowdidowdgd {t jfuinkho do fwun{ inwduhn{" anx ~td wdodu do ktdown ~td itkaf{ dbbf{}f{ddo fugdongfu d Howduodw do {t{ af`nud{" bf ~td bd{ }duihwd zdohu kfokfofkhihdowf{ }udzhf{ !do itx ghzdu{f{ ùngf{( x }unkwhknu bf{ kfofkhihdowf{ng~thuhgf{ n bf bnu`f gdb ktu{f/

[d fe{duzn ton in{hjhknkho hi}fuwnowd do db ntbn/ Ton }nuwd {hòhjhknwhzn gdbùt}f }ufzhdod gd ]K]H gd d{wd ih{if kdowuf/ To nbtiof gdb ùt}f whdod

ghnò{whkf gd d{~thsfjudohn x d{w kfowufbngf kfo idghknkho" {dò hojfuid gdbgd}nuwnidowf gd Fuhdownkho" }duf kfo }f{hehbhgng gd wun{wfuof{ ùnzd{ gdkfogtkwn/ Fwuf nbtiof whdod ghnò{whkf gd WGNA" {dò hojfuin bn wtwfun gdbùt}f n }nuwhu gd kfozdu{nkho kfo bn ingud gd n~tb/

FECDWHZF[

Jhonbhgng gd bn }ufùninkho

Bn jfuinkho }ufjd{hfonb" do db iehwf gdb {h{wdin dgtknwhzf" whdod kfif jhonbhgng

bn }ud}nunkho gdb nbtiongf }nun bn nkwhzhgng do to kni}f }ufjd{hfonb"}uf}fukhfoogfbd{ ton jfuinkho }fbhznbdowd ~td bd{ }duihwn ngn}wnu{d n bn{ifghjhknkhfod{ bnefunbd{ ~td }tdgdo }ufgtkhu{d n bf bnu`f gd {t zhgn/

Bn hokfu}funkho }uqhin gdb nbtiongf nb idukngf bnefunb" ankd odkd{nuhf dbkfofkhihdowf gd bn{ wkohkn{ i{ t{ngn{ x nkwtnbd{ gd bn fjhiwhkn" }ud{dowddo wfgn{ bn{ di}ud{n{ gfogd db nbtiof }tdgd udnbhsnu {t wunencf/ Db kfidwhgf}uhokh}nb gd d{wd igtbf d{ kfo{d`thu ~td db nbtiof {d jnihbhnuhkd kfo bf{fugdongfud{ x n}udogn n inodcnu bf{ utghidowf{ gd ktnb~thdu {fjwpnudfjhiwhkf" kfofkhdogf bf{ }ufkdghihdowf{ e{hkf{ kfitod{ n d{wd wh}f gd {fjwpnud

x ngdktnogf {t{ kfofkhihdowf{ nb {h{wdin f}dunwhzf twhbhsngf }fu bndi}ud{n/

Bn fjhiwhkn whdogd n bn twhbhsnkho gd aduunihdown{ kfif db }ufkd{ngfu gdwdqwf{" bn afcn gd kbktbf" to `d{wfu gd en{d{ gd gnwf{" to {fjwpnud gddghkho gd hi`dod{ x to {fjwpnud gd }ud{downkhfod{ !db bwhif of hokbthgfdo db ktuuktbf fjhkhnb }duf { do d{wn }ufùninkho(/ D{wn{ aduunihdown{ {d


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gh{wuhetxdo gd gf{ jfuin{3 ho{wnbngn{ bfknbidowd do db fugdongfu f ho{wnbngn{ do{duzhgfud{ ncdof{ !do bn oted(/ N{ ih{if {d }tdgdo twhbhsnu kfo {h{wdin{f}dunwhzf{ }uf}hdwnuhf{ !kfif Phogfp{( f bheud{ !kfif Bhotq(/ Kfif ngdktnkho nd{wn udnbhgng" {d fjudkdu nb nbtiongf bn }f{hehbhgng gd dbd`hu {h{wdin f}dunwhzf x}n~tdwd fjhiwhkf }nun wunencnu do kbn{d3

Fjjhkd 5=>= }nun Phogfp{ 0 F}doFjjhkd !f {hihbnu( }nun INQ Bhotq z:/= @ff`bd Guhzd&[lxGuhzd }nun nkkdgdu n dghkho&nbinkdonihdowf fobhod

idghnowd onzd`ngfu gd howduodw/

[d jnzfudkdu db nbinkdonihdowf gd bf{ wunencf{ f }ufgtkwf{ gh`hwnbd{ twhbhsnogfgh{kf{ gtuf{ zhuwtnbd{ ùnwthwf{ nbfcngf{ do bn oted" kfif Guf}efq"kfozdohdowdidowd kfi}nuwhgf{ kfo bn }ufjd{fun/

Fecdwhzf{ do db ohzdb }ud{kuh}whzf

Bf{ fecdwhzf{ {d jhcno do wuihof{ gd kn}nkhgngd{ wduihonbd{ ~td khwnif{ nkfowhotnkho3

Howdu}udwnu bn{ jtokhfod{ e{hkn{ gd bf{ dbdidowf{ b`hkf{ x j{hkf{ ~tdkfi}fodo to {h{wdin hojfuiwhkf/

N}bhknu" kfif t{tnuhf" bn{ twhbhgngd{" jtokhfod{ x }ufkdghihdowf{ gd to {h{wdinf}dunwhzf ifoft{tnuhf/

N}bhknu bf{ kfinogf{ f ho{wutkkhfod{ odkd{nuhf{ }nun bn udnbhsnkho gdf}dunkhfod{ e{hkn{ kfo to {h{wdin kfodkwngf do udg gd udn bfknb/

Inodcnu kfif t{tnuhf to }ufkd{ngfu gd wdqwf" ton afcn gd kbktbf x ton en{dgd gnwf{ x n}bhknu }ufkdghihdowf{ ~td `nunowhkdo bn howdùhgng" {d`tuhgng"gh{}fohehbhgng x kfojhgdokhnbhgng gd bn hojfuinkho nbinkdongn/

Fecdwhzf{ gd bn }ufùninkho

Bf{ fecdwhzf{ gd d{wn }ufùninkho }udwdogdo hu i{ nbb gdb kti}bhihdowf gd bf{

fecdwhzf{ }ud{kuh}whzf{" ni}bhnogf db afuhsfowd gd bf{ kfowdohgf{ kfokd}wtnbd{"}ufkdghidownbd{ x nkwhwtghonbd{ ~td }bnowdnen bn BF@[D }nun d{wd igtbf" n bf{kfofkhihdowf{ x anehbhgngd{ }uf}hn{ gdb {h`bf QQH/

Bf{ fecdwhzf{ gd d{wn }ufùninkho d{wo ho{}hungf{ do bf{ fecdwhzf{ gdbn}udoghsncd n wunz{ gd }ufxdkwf{ !]ufcdkw En{dg Bdnuoho` ) ]EB(" n {nedu3


8/36



^td bf{ d{wtghnowd{ ud{tdbzno }ufebdin{ udnbd{ ~td bd{ }udfkt}do f bd{ ifwhzdoan{wn db }towf ~td gd{ddo n}udogdu bf odkd{nuhf }nun bbd`nu n ton {fbtkho/

^td d{f{ }ufebdin{ {dno do bf }f{hebd) {hòhjhknwhzf{ }nun bn kfitohgng/ ^td }nun ud{fbzdu d{f{ }ufebdin{ twhbhkdo bf{ kfofkhihdowf{" aduunihdown{ x

}ufkdghihdowf{ ~td gdedo n}udogdu {dò db ktuuktbf gd d{wd igtbf/ ^td wunencdo do d~th}f{ gd{nuufbbnogf anehbhgngd{ x nkwhwtgd{ }uf}hn{ gdb {h`bf

QQH3 }do{nihdowf kuwhkf" ud{fbtkho gd }ufebdin{" kfbnefunkho"kfitohknkho x inodcf gd aduunihdown{ WHK>/

^td bf{ d{wtghnowd{ }nuwhkh}do do to }ufkd{f uh`tuf{f x }ufjtogf gd ankdu{d}ud`town{" twhbhsnogf udktu{f{ x gd{nuufbbnogf ud{}td{wn{/

^td {d fu`nohkdo bn{ wnudn{ nbudgdgfu gd ton }ud`town kdowunb/ Db wunencf gdkngn }ufxdkwf {d kdowun do ton }ud`town nehduwn ~td bf{ d{wtghnowd{ dq}bfuno f~td {d udjbdcn do bn wnudn ~td d{wo ankhdogf/

^td bf{ d{wtghnowd{ zdno bn odkd{hgng gd ng~thuhu kfofkhihdowf" dowdogdukfokd}wf{ x n}bhknu }ufkdghihdowf{ }nun ud{}fogdu bn }ud`town kdowunb x kudnu}ufgtkwf{ gdowuf gdb }ufxdkwf" di}dsnogf }fu to dzdowf hohkhnb ~td `dodudhowdu{ x ktuhf{hgng/

^td db nbtiongf }tdgno wfinu nb`ton{ gdkh{hfod{ {feud bf{ }ufgtkwf{ ~tdgdedo kudnu" kif wunencnu x kif t{nu {t whdi}f" `thngf{ }fu bn }ufjd{fun{dò bn dgng gd n~tbbf{ x {t dq}duhdokhn wunencnogf do kbnzd ]EB/

^td db }ufxdkwf hokfu}fud }ufkdghihdowf{ }nun ~td bf{ d{wtghnowd{ twhbhkdo bnudwufnbhidownkho n}fuwngn }fu bn }ufjd{fun !idghnowd dznbtnkho jfuinwhzn(}nun kfo{hgdunu nnghgf{ x kniehf{ ~td bd{ `tdo ankhn }ufgtkwf{ gd inxfuknbhgng" x }nun ~td }hdo{do {feud ~t x kif d{wo n}udoghdogf/

^td bf{ d{wtghnowd{ }ud{dowdo {t wunencf n fwun{ }du{fon{ gd bn kfitohgng" i{nbb gd {t{ kfi}nduf{ gd kbn{d x }ufjd{fun/

KFOWDOHGF[ GD BN ]UF@UNINKHO

Kfowdohgf{ iohif{ gdb igtbf d{wnebdkhgf{ }fu db UG >:44&87

Howufgtkkho n bn hojfuiwhkn3

]ufkd{f gd gnwf{ d hojfuiwhkn/ Dbdidowf{ gd anugpnud/

>WHK3 wdkofbf`n{ gd bn hojfuinkho x bn kfitohknkho/


9/36



D~th}f{ }duhjuhkf{/ Ud}ud{downkho howduon gd gnwf{/ Dbdidowf{ gdb {fjwpnud/

[h{wdin{ f}dunwhzf{3

Jtokhfod{ e{hkn{ gd to {h{wdin f}dunwhzf/ [h{wdin{ f}dunwhzf{ ifoft{tnuhf x itbwht{tnuhf/ Twhbhsnkho gd {h{wdin{ f}dunwhzf{ ifoft{tnuhf/ Dowfuof{ gd t{tnuhf/

Udgd{ bfknbd{3

Wh}f{ e{hkf{ gd udgd{ gd udn bfknb/ Kfi}fodowd{ j{hkf{ gd udgd{ bfknbd{/ [h{wdin f}dunwhzf gd udgd{ bfknbd{/

]ufkd{ngfud{ gd wdqwf3

Gh{df gd gfktidowf{/ Dghkho gd wdqwf{/ @d{who gd nukahzf{/ Hi}ud{ho gd wdqwf{/

Afcn{ gd kbktbf3

Gh{df gd afcn{ gd kbktbf/ Dghkho gd afcn{ gd kbktbf/ @d{who gd nukahzf{/ Hi}ud{ho gd afcn{ gd kbktbf/

En{d{ gd gnwf{3

Wh}f{ gd en{d{ gd gnwf{/ Gh{df gd en{d{ gd gnwf{/ Twhbhsnkho gd en{d{ gd gnwf{/

N}bhknkhfod{ ùjhkn{ x gd ntwfdghkho3

Wh}f{ gd ùjhkf{ {f}fuwngf{/ Gh{df gd ùjhkf{/ ]ud{downkho gd ùjhkf{/


10/36


>= ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

Howdùnkho gd ùjhkf{ do gfktidowf{/]n~tdwd{ howdùngf{3

Ifgtbnuhgng gd }n~tdwd{ howdùngf{/ ]ufkdghihdowf{ gd hi}fuwnkho)dq}fuwnkho/

Kfowdohgf{ gd bn }ufùninkho fu`nohsngf{ }fu Nkwhzhgngd{ f Wnudn{udbnkhfongn{ kfo ]ufxdkwf{ gd N}udoghsncd

Bf{ kfowdohgf{ gd bn }ufùninkho {d fu`nohsnuo do nkwhzhgngd{ f wnudn{ ktxfud{tbwngf jhonb {duo }ufgtkwf{ dowud`nebd{ `dodunbidowd udbnkhfongf{ kfo}ufxdkwf{ gd n}udoghsncd }uf}td{wf{ x gd{nuufbbngf{ }fu bf{ nbtiof{/Ghkaf{dowud`nebd{ hokfu}funuo bf{ kfowdohgf{ x }ufkdghihdowf{ ~td d{wnebdkd dbktuuktbf }nun nbknosnu bn{ kn}nkhgngd{ wduihonbd{ gdb igtbf" n{ kfif bf{

fecdwhzf{ ~td }uf}fo`f do d{wn }ufùninkho x ~td of jh`tuno do db ktuuktbf/

Bf{ }ufgtkwf{ dowud`nebd{ }fguo {du gd onwtunbdsn nonb`hkn f gh`hwnb"nto~td }udgfihonuo bf{ gh`hwnbd{/ Bf{ dowud`nebd{ nonb`hkf{ }fguo {du"dowud fwuf{3 jfwfkf}hn{ wunencngn{ do kbn{d" dcdukhkhf{ ud{tdbwf{ do to jfbhf"ud{idod{" d{~tdin{ x {teunxngf{ do wdqwf{" dwk/ To bh{wngf !of dqant{whzf ohdqkbt{hzf( gd dowud`nebd{ gh`hwnbd{ d{wnun jfuingf }fu3

Ud}f{hwfuhf{ gd {fjwpnud bheud f gd }utden" ùnwthwf" x kfozdohdowdidowdkbn{hjhkngf x dwh~tdwngf {dò twhbhgng x {h{wdin f}dunwhzf/

Nukahzf{ x Knu}dwn{ kudngf{" inowdohgf{ x !do {t kn{f( kfi}nuwhgf{ kfodjhknkhn do udg gd udn bfknb f do bn oted" do db {h{wdin f}dunwhzf dbd`hgf3d{wutkwtun{ gd knu}dwn{" kf}hn{ gd {d`tuhgng" knu}dwn{ kfi}nuwhgn{ kfo}duih{f{ gdwduihongf{" dwk/

Gfktidowf{ gd wdqwf udbnkhfongf{ kfo bf{ }ufxdkwf{ gdb nbtiongf3wtwfuhnbd{" knuwn{" gfktidowf{ ngihoh{wunwhzf{ x&f kfidukhnbd{" knuwdbd{ tfwuf{ jfuinwf{ }tebhkhwnuhf{" hojfuid{ x idifuhn{ ~td udjbdcdo db nobh{h{"bn{ ah}wd{h{" }bnohjhknkhfod{" zduhjhknkhfod{ x kfokbt{hfod{ gd bn{ wnudn{ ~tdjfuido }nuwd gd kngn }ufxdkwf/

Afcn{ gd kbktbf }nun ud{fbzdu }ufebdin{ otiuhkf{ znuhngf{ x }ud{downuùjhkn{ gd gnwf{ udbnkhfongn{ kfo db }ufxdkwf3 knbktbngfun{" {hitbngfud{"wnebn{ kfi}nunwhzn{" {duhd{" dwk/

En{d gd gnwf{ }nun djdkwtnu kfo{tbwn{ x udnbhsnu ifghjhknkhfod{ {feudgnwf{ gd }du{fon{ f kf{n{ !kbhdowdbn" }ufzddgfud{" }ufgtkwf{" dwk/(udbnkhfongn{ kfo db }ufxdkwf/

]ud{downkhfod{ gd n}fxf n kfitohknkhfod{ udbnkhfongn{ kfo db }ufxdkwfx&f kfo db ud{wf gd bf{ igtbf{ gd d{wd Khkbf/ Bn{ }ud{downkhfod{ of d{wo


11/36


>> ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

hokbthgn{ do db ktuuktbf" }duf }fu {t hi}fuwnokhn do db dowfuof kfidukhnb xgd zdown{" kfo{hgduf hi}ud{khoghebd hokbthubn{ do d{wn }ufùninkho/

Fwuf{ }ufgtkwf{ gh`hwnbd{3 kfuudf{ dbdkwuohkf{" ebf`{" phlh{" }`hon{pde" n}bhknkhfod{ f }ufùnin{" oted{ gd }nbneun{" bodn{ gd whdi}f" zgdf{"jfwf{" kfi}f{hkhfod{ it{hknbd{" bh{wn{ gd wnudn{" knbdognuhf{" dwk/

[dn ktnb {dn bn onwtunbdsn gdb dowud`nebd" db dbdidowf fu`nohsngfu fzduwdeungfu gd bf{ kfowdohgf{ {du db ifidowf kufofb`hkf do ~td {d}uf}fo`n bn nkwhzhgng kfo ud{}dkwf nb gd{nuufbbf gd bf{ }ufxdkwf{/ Bf{kfowdohgf{ {d fu`nohsnuo do nkwhzhgngd{ w}hknidowd }udzhn{ n" }uf}hn{ gd xgd jhonb gd }ufxdkwf{" `dodunogf dowud`nebd{ kfo jfuinwf{ ngdktngf{ n bf{fecdwhzf{ x bn onwtunbdsn gd kngn nkwhzhgng kfokudwn/ Do kngn nkwhzhgng of{kdowunudif{ do tof{ }fkf{ dbdidowf{ ktuuhktbnud{ !dowud 5 x 4( ~td kn}wnuo dbjfkf gd nwdokho x {duo kfi}bdidowngf{ kfo bf{ dbdidowf{ ncdof{ nb ktuuktbf ~td{dno }duwhodowd{/

Gdowuf gd bn{ nkwhzhgngd{ w}hknidowd }udzhn{ n }ufxdkwf{ f hohkhnbd{ {d}uf}foguo3

Nkwhzhgngd{ gd }ud{downkho gdb igtbf x gd idwfgfbf`n gd wunencf/ Nkwhzhgngd{ gd gdwdkkho gd fecdwhzf{&nobh{h{ d{wunw`hkf3 GNJF/ Nkwhzhgngd{ gd howdunkkho kfo bn hojfuinkho !jtdowd{ nonb`hkn{ x&f

gh`hwnbd{(3 gd{kteuhihdowf `thngf" e{~tdgn gdb wd{fuf" udkfofkhihdowf gdkfokd}wf{" ud{idod{" kbn{hjhknkho&nùt}nkho" nobh{h{ kuwhkf{ }du{fonbd{"

ud{fbtkho gd udwf{ x ih{wduhf{/

Gdowuf gd bn{ nkwhzhgngd{ w}hknidowd }uf}hn{ gd }ufxdkwf{ f howduidghn{ {d}uf}foguo3

Nkwhzhgngd{ gd zh{tnbhsnkho&{hitbnkuf3 ctd`f{/ Nkwhzhgngd{ gd }bnohjhknkho3 udnbhsnkho gd dwn}n{ gd bn }bnohjhknkho onwtunb

!}uf}{hwf x }uhokh}hf{" zh{ho" bbtzhn gd hgdn{" fu`nohsnkho" nkkhfod{{h`thdowd{(" iwfgf @WG/

Nkwhzhgngd{ gd `dodunkho gd hgdn{3 bbtzhn gd hgdn{" in}n{ idownbd{" oted{gd dwh~tdwn{/

Nkwhzhgngd{ gd ud`h{wuf gd hgdn{3 }f{w)hw" Ptogdubh{w" UWI/ Nkwhzhgngd{ gd kffughonkho gd }ufxdkwf{3 knbdognuhf{" bodn{ gd whdi}f"

]DUW f {hihbnud{/ Nkwhzhgngd{ gd howdunkkho kfo bn hojfuinkho3 gd{kteuhihdowf `thngf"

e{~tdgn gdb wd{fuf" udkfofkhihdowf gd kfokd}wf{" ud{idod{"kbn{hjhknkho&nùt}nkho" ud{}td{wn{ }du{fonbd{" udwf{" ih{wduhf{" kudnkhfod{


12/36


>5 ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

hoghwn{" khwn ngdktngn gd jtdowd{ gd hojfuinkho ud{}dwnogf ]uf}hdgngHowdbdkwtnb x Bhkdokhn{/

Nkwhzhgngd{ gd howdunkkho {fkhnb3 dowudzh{wn{" gdenwd{" kn{f{" ah{wfuhn{"nokgfwn{/

Nkwhzhgngd{ gd }ud{downkho gd ud{tbwngf{ }nukhnbd{3 ct{whjhknkho gdbjfuinwf gd }ud{downkho gd bf{ }ufgtkwf{ gh`hwnbd{" }ud{downkhfod{ do}ebhkf" }td{wn{ do d{kdon guninwhsngn{/

Gdowuf gd bn{ nkwhzhgngd{ w}hknidowd gd jhonb gd }ufxdkwf{ f jhonbd{ {d}uf}foguo3

Nkwhzhgngd{ gd }ud{downkho gd ud{tbwngf{ jhonbd{3 ct{whjhknkho gdb jfuinwfgd }ud{downkho gd bf{ }ufgtkwf{ gh`hwnbd{" }ud{downkhfod{ do }ebhkf"}td{wn{ do d{kdon guninwhsngn{" ghjt{ho {fkhnb gd bf{ ud{tbwngf{ gd bf{}ufxdkwf{/

Nkwhzhgngd{ gd udkf}hbnkho gdb wunencf }du{fonb gtunowd db ktu{f3 }fuwjfbhfgh`hwnb" phlh" }`hon pde" ebf`" beti gd jfwf{ gh`hwnb" knonb XftWted&Zhidff {hihbnu" x ktnb~thdu {f}fuwd gh`hwnb gd kudnkho ~td wdo`n TUB }nun zh{hwnux {dn {t{kd}whebd gd dznbtnkho/

Nkwhzhgngd{ gd ntwfdznbtnkho3 znbfunkho }uf}hn wnowf gdb }ufkd{f kfif gdbud{tbwngf gd n}udoghsncd/

Nkwhzhgngd{ gd dznbtnkho dowud }nud{3 znbfunkho }uf}hn wnowf gdb }ufkd{fkfif gdb ud{tbwngf gd n}udoghsncd gd {t{ kfi}nduf{ do {t{ }ud{downkhfod{do }ebhkf/

Nkwhzhgngd{ gd dznbtnkho gd bn }ukwhkn gfkdowd3 znbfunkho gdb ùngf gdkti}bhihdowf gd bn{ }udih{n{ ]EB do bn }uf}td{wn gfkdowd }nun d{wdigtbf/

N kfowhotnkho dq}fo`f do jfuinwf neudzhngf5 bn d{wutkwtun gd }ud{downkho`douhkn gd nkwhzhgngd{ {dò {t ifidowf kufofb`hkf ud{}dkwf n bf{ }ufxdkwf{/Kngn nkwhzhgng hokbtxd3

Wh}f gd nkwhzhgng3 hohkhnb" howduidghn f jhonb/

5[ho gd{nuufbbnu kfo gdwnbbd bn{ nkwhzhgngd{ f wnudn{ d{}dkjhkn{" bn{ ktnbd{ {d dbnefunuo gdowuf gd bn

]ufùninkho gd Ntbn {dò {d znxno d{wnebdkhdogf bn{ en{d{ kfokd}wtnbd{ kfitod{ n wfgf db ùt}f x {d bf{

d~th}f{ gd wunencf x bn{ wdiwhkn{ gd bf{ ]ufxdkwf{/


13/36


>; ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

]nun ~t6 Ton }ud`town kbnzd ~td {d gded ud{}fogdu3 kfuwn" udnb"{h`ohjhknwhzn" ifwhzngfun/ D{ db fecdwhzf gd bn nkwhzhgng f gdb }ufxdkwf/

^t6 Kfokd}wf{" anehbhgngd{ x nkwhwtgd{ !ktuuhktbnud{&dqwunktuuhktbnud{(~td {d }udwdogd ng~thuhu/ [fo bf{ kfowdohgf{ ~td {d wunencnuo/

Wdi}funbhsnkho3 oiduf gd {d{hfod{ gd kbn{d }udzh{wn{/ Dznbtnkho&knbhjhknkho3 ueuhkn{ f inwuhkd{ gd znbfunkho ngdktngn{ nb wh}f

gd znbfunkho odkd{nuhn3 {tinwhzn f jfuinwhzn/ Zdu ]ufkdghihdowf{ gdDznbtnkho/

Dowud`nebd{ nonb`hkf{&gh`hwnbd{3 }ufgtkwf{ jhonbd{ !bn dbdkkho gdb jfuinwfd{ gdb nbtiongf do bn jn{d gd }ufxdkwf{(/


14/36

]uf`uninkho Ghgkwhkn3 N}bhknkhfod{ Hojfuiwhkn{ Kfidukhf


]UD[DOWNKH O GDB I GTBFWdi}funbhsnkho3 5 {d{hfod{ gd 44 ihotwf{

Kif }tdgf n}ufenu Hojfuiwhkn6^t odkd{hwf {nedu6 rr ^t zfx n n}udogdu6

Kfokd}wf{ Anehbhgngd{ Nkwhwtgd{Jhonbhgng gdb khkbf gd Kfidukhf/

Fecdwhzf{ x kfowdohgf{ e{hkf{ gdb igtbf/

Wunwnihdowf idwfgfb`hkf gd bf{ kfowdohgf{/

[h{wdin{ x aduunihdown{ gd dznbtnkho/

Gdwdkkho gd kfofkhihdowf{ }udzhf{/

Gdwdkkho gd howdud{d{ jfuinwhzf{/

Gd{nuufbbf gd bn{ wnudn{&}ufxdkwf{/

Gd{nuufbbf gd dqidod{ gd iohif{/

Nobh{h{ gd bf{ kuhwduhf{ gd knbhjhknkho/

Kfi}fuwnihdowf ngdktngf do db ntbn)wnbbdu/

Kfi}ufih{f kfo db }uf}hf n}udoghsncd/

Kfokhdokhn gd bn{ }uf}hn{ anehbhgngd{ x gd bf{}towf{ ~td anx ~td idcfunu/

Ud{}dwf n bn{ }du{fon{ x inwduhnbd{/

Znbfunkho gd bn{ f}khfod{" bn{ gdkh{hfod{ x bn{nkwhwtgd{ }du{fonbd{/

Nkwhwtg }f{hwhzn ankhn bn ntwfznbfunkho x bn{t}dunkho }du{fonb/

^t {du dznbtngf6 rr Kfo ~t kuhwduhf{6 rr Kfo ~t aduunihdown{6Nwdokho d howdu{/ D{ktkan nkwhzn/ Kfi}udo{ho gdbkfokd}wf/ Ud{tido gdb }ufkd{f/ ]nuwhkh}nkho/

Dznbf bn wfwnbhgng gdb }ufkd{f f}ufgtkwf" {ho cts`nu }fu {d}nungf bn{}nuwd{ ~td bf kfi}fodo/

Inwuhs gd znbfunkho kfi}udado{hzn !ueuhknafb{whkn( kfo d~thznbdokhn{ gd knbhjhknkhfod{gd = n >=/

Dowud`nebd{ nonb`hkf{ rr Dowud`nebd{ gh`hwnbd{ Nobh{h{ GNJF gd kfofkhihdowf{ {feud hojfuiwhkn do to jfbhf/ Oted{ gd dwh~tdwn{ do nukahzf{ gd hin`do gh`hwnb !dbnefungn }fu

}ufjd{fun(3 ud}fuwnjddgenkl nb nbtiongf {feud bf{ kfofkhihdowf{}udzhf{ gdb ut}f x nkdukn gd bf{ howdud{d{ ~td ifwhznuno bnhozd{wh`nkho do jtwtuf{ }ufxdkwf{(/

[hwhf Pde gd bn }ufjd{fun !jddgenkl(3 {d }fodo n gh{}f{hkho gd bf{nbtiof{ bf{ inwduhnbd{ odkd{nuhf{ }nun wunencnu bn n{h`onwtun"}uf}td{wn{ gd udjtdusf&ni}bhnkho" kfo{dcf{ {feud bdkwtun{ xifwhznkho" kuhwduhf{ gd dznbtnkho&knbhjhknkho" ofwn{ wuhid{wunbd{"

x dobnkd n bf{ }fuwnjfbhf{ }du{fonbd{ gd bf{ nbtiof{/


15/36



NKWHZHGNG HOHKHNB

OWdi}funbhsnkho3 Q {d{hfod{ gd 44 ihotwf{

]ud`town Kbnzd^t odkd{hwf {nedu6 rr ^t zfx n n}udogdu6

Kfokd}wf{ Anehbhgngd{ Nkwhwtgd{

^t {du dznbtngf6 rr Kfo ~t kuhwduhf{6 rr Kfo ~t aduunihdown{6Nwdokho d howdu{/ D{ktkan nkwhzn/ Kfi}udo{ho gdbkfokd}wf/ Ud{tido gdb }ufkd{f/ ]nuwhkh}nkho/Hohkhnwhzn/ Kfowuhetkhfod{ nb d~th}f/ Knbhgng gd bnhojfuinkho dokfowungn/ Kn}nkhgng gd }udgdkhu x gdjfuitbnu ah}wd{h{/

Dznbf bn wfwnbhgng gdb }ufkd{f f}ufgtkwf" {ho cts`nu }fu {d}nungf bn{}nuwd{ ~td bf kfi}fodo/

Dznbf }fu {d}nungf bn{ gh{whown{ }nuwd{gdb }ufgtkwf f gd{di}df x btd`f {tifbn }towtnkho gd bn{ }nuwd{ }nun fewdodubn knbhjhknkho wfwnb/ Jddgenkl itwtf/

Inwuhs gd znbfunkho kfi}udado{hzn !ueuhknafb{whkn( kfo d~thznbdokhn{ gd knbhjhknkhfod{gd = n >=/

Inwuhs gd znbfunkho jfuinwhzn !ueuhknnonbwhkn( kfo d~thznbdokhn{ gd knbhjhknkhfod{gd = n >= ~td {d dowud`n nb nbtiongf do dbih{if ifidowf do ~td {d }uf}fod bnnkwhzhgng f wnudn/

Dowud`nebd{ nonb`hkf{ rr Dowud`nebd{ gh`hwnbd{ Jfwfkf}hn{ kfo ud{}td{wn{ n }ud`town{/ E{~tdgn gdb wd{fuf do }n}db/ D{~tdin{ do }n}db/ Fwuf{ dowud`nebd{ nonb`hkf{/

Kfuudf dbdkwuohkf gd }ud{downkho/ N}fuwnkho }du{fonb n ud}f{hwfuhf gd {fjwpnud&n}}{ Nukahzf{ x Knu}dwn{ kudngf{" inowdohgf{ x !do {t kn{f(

kfi}nuwhgf{ kfo djhknkhn do udg gd udn bfknb f do bn oted" do db{h{wdin f}dunwhzf dbd`hgf3 d{wutkwtun{ gd knu}dwn{" kf}hn{ gd{d`tuhgng" knu}dwn{ kfi}nuwhgn{ kfo }duih{f{ gdwduihongf{" dwk/

Gfktidowf{ gd }ufkd{ngfu gd wdqwf/ Fwuf{ }ufgtkwf{ gh`hwnbd{/


16/36


>: ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

NKWHZHGNG HOWDUIDGHN

OWdi}funbhsnkho3 Q {d{hfod{ gd 44 ihotwf{

]ud`town Kbnzd^t odkd{hwf {nedu6 rr ^t zfx n n}udogdu6

Kfokd}wf{ Anehbhgngd{ Nkwhwtgd{

^t {du dznbtngf6 rr Kfo ~t kuhwduhf{6 rr Kfo ~t aduunihdown{6 Wfin gd gdkh{hfod{ wun{ bn kfi}ufenkho gd

ah}wd{h{/ Kn}nkhgng gd {t}dunu bn{ ghjhktbwngd{ x udfuhdownu

db wunencf/ T{f gdb bdo`tncd n}uf}hngf }nun kfitohknu

!zfknetbnuhf" ujhkf{(/ T{f gd bn{ WHK kfif nxtgn }nun ud{fbzdu bn

}ud`town }uhokh}nb/ Gnu ud{}td{wn{ unsfonebd{ n bn{ }ud`town{ ~td

{tucno/

Dznbf bn wfwnbhgng gdb }ufkd{f f}ufgtkwf" {ho cts`nu }fu {d}nungfbn{ }nuwd{ ~td bf kfi}fodo/

Dznbf }fu {d}nungf bn{ gh{whown{}nuwd{ gdb }ufgtkwf f gd{di}df xbtd`f {tif bn }towtnkho gd bn{}nuwd{ }nun fewdodu bn knbhjhknkhowfwnb/

Inwuhs gd znbfunkho kfi}udado{hzn!ueuhkn afb{whkn( kfo d~thznbdokhn{ gdknbhjhknkhfod{ gd = n >=/

Inwuhs gd znbfunkho jfuinwhzn !ueuhknnonbwhkn( kfo d~thznbdokhn{ gdknbhjhknkhfod{ gd = n >= ~td {d dowud`n nbnbtiongf do db ih{if ifidowf do ~td {d}uf}fod bn nkwhzhgng f wnudn/


Kfuudf dbdkwuohkf/ N}fuwnkho }du{fonb n ud}f{hwfuhf gd {fjwpnud&n}}{ Nukahzf{ x knu}dwn{ kudngf{" inowdohgf{ x !do {t kn{f( kfi}nuwhgf{

kfo }duih{f{ gdwduihongf{" dwk/ Gfktidowf{ gd }ufkd{ngfu gd wdqwf/ Gfktidowf{ gd afcn gd kbktbf/ En{d gd gnwf{/ ]ud{downkhfod{ }nukhnbd{ gdb }ufxdkwf n bn kbn{d/ Fwuf{ }ufgtkwf{ gh`hwnbd{ gdb }ufxdkwf do ktu{f3 ebf`{" phlh{"

}`hon{ pde" n}bhknkhfod{ f }uf`unin{" oted{ gd }nbneun{" bodn{gd whdi}f" zgdf{" jfwf{" kfi}f{hkhfod{ it{hknbd{" bh{wn{ gd wnudn{"knbdognuhf{ t fwuf{ ~td {dno zduhjhknebd{ }fu TUB/


17/36



NKWHZHGNG JHONB

O

Wdi}funbhsnkho3 Q {d{hfod{ gd 44 ihotwf{]ud`town Kbnzd

^t odkd{hwf {nedu6 rr ^t zfx n n}udogdu6Kfokd}wf{ Anehbhgngd{ Nkwhwtgd{

^t {du dznbtngf6 rr Kfo ~t kuhwduhf{6 rr Kfo ~t aduunihdown{6 Kfo{dktkho gd bn wnudn !ud{}td{wn n bn }ud`town

kbnzd( Knbhgng x fuh`honbhgng gd bf{ }ufgtkwf{/ ]ud{downkho gd ud{tbwngf{/ Ntwf n}udoghsncd/ N}udoghsncd gd {t{ }nud{/ ]ukwhkn gfkdowd/

Dznbf bn wfwnbhgng gdb }ufkd{f f}ufgtkwf" {ho cts`nu }fu {d}nungfbn{ }nuwd{ ~td bf kfi}fodo/

Dznbf }fu {d}nungf bn{ gh{whown{}nuwd{ gdb }ufgtkwf f gd{di}df xbtd`f {tif bn }towtnkho gd bn{}nuwd{ }nun fewdodu bn knbhjhknkhowfwnb/

Inwuhs gd znbfunkho kfi}udado{hzn!ueuhkn afb{whkn( kfo d~thznbdokhn{ gdknbhjhknkhfod{ gd = n >=/

Inwuhs gd znbfunkho jfuinwhzn !ueuhknnonbwhkn( kfo d~thznbdokhn{ gdknbhjhknkhfod{ gd = n >= ~td {d dowud`n nbnbtiongf do db ih{if ifidowf do ~td {d}uf}fod bn nkwhzhgng f wnudn/


Kfuudf dbdkwuohkf/ ]ud{downkhfod{ jhonbd{ gdb }ufxdkwf do }ebhkf n bn kfitohgng/ ]fuwnjfbhf{ gh`hwnbd{ hoghzhgtnbd{3 ebf`{" phlh{" }`hon{ pde"

n}bhknkhfod{ f }uf`unin{" zgdf{" jfwf{" kfi}f{hkhfod{ it{hknbd{"knonb gd XftWted&Zhidf f {hihbnu" x&f ktnb~thdu fwuf {f}fuwdgh`hwnb zduhjhknebd }fu TUB/

Wpddw{ do Wphwwdu" ut}f{&}`hon{ do udgd{ {fkhnbd{" notokhf{ do}udo{n gh`hwnb t fwun{ nkkhfod{ gd }tebhkhgng zduhjhknebd{ }fu TUB}nun bn ghjt{ho {fkhnb gd bf{ ud{tbwngf{ gd bf{ }ufxdkwf{/


18/36



WDI]FUNBHSNKHO

Db xn khwngf UG >:0=&>887" gd 55 gd Ctbhf nwuhetxd >;= afun{; nb igtbf gdN}bhknkhfod{ Hojfuiwhkn{ gd }uf}{hwf `dodunb" ~td {d ud}nuwhuo do ktnwuf{d{hfod{ {dinonbd{ fu`nohsngn{ do ebf~td{ gd 5 {d{hfod{ kfowhotngn{/

Do jtokho gd d{wn nwuhetkho afunuhn" bn{ nkwhzhgngd{ wdoguo }udzh{hebdidowd bn{h`thdowd gh{wuhetkho" en{ogfid do {d{hfod{ gd 44 ihotwf{ gd kbn{d3

NKWHZHGNGD[ [D[HFOD[ WFWNB

[D[HFOD[

WUHID[WUD

]UD[DOWNKHO 7 7 >

HOHKHNBD[ 5= 57 >

HOWDUIDGHN[ :7 11 > x 5

JHONBD[ 75 >;= ;

IDWFGFBF@N GHGKWHKN

]uhokh}hf{ idwfgfb`hkf{

Bn{ idwfgfbf`n{ }nun db n}udoghsncd nkwhzf {fo bn{ i{ ngdktngn{ }nun wunencnu do

d{wtghf{ }ufjd{hfonbd{ ~td }ud}nuno }nun bn ho{dukho bnefunb x do igtbf{dihodowdidowd }ukwhkf{ kfif {wd/ Bn{ ih{in{ {d ngn}wno n to ifgdbf gdn}udoghsncd do db ~td db }n}db }uhokh}nb kfuud{}fogd nb d{wtghnowd" ~thdo kfo{wutxddb kfofkhihdowf n }nuwhu gd ton{ }ntwn{" nkwhzhgngd{ f d{kdonuhf{ gh{dngf{ }fu db}ufjd{fu/ D{ }fu d{wf ~td bf{ fecdwhzf{ gd d{wn{ idwfgfbf`n{ {dno" }uhokh}nbidowd"ankdu ~td db d{wtghnowd3

[d kfozhduwn do ud{}fo{nebd gd {t }uf}hf n}udoghsncd" ~td gd{nuufbbdanehbhgngd{ gd e{~tdgn" {dbdkkho" nobh{h{ x dznbtnkho gd bn hojfuinkho"n{tihdogf to }n}db i{ nkwhzf do bn kfo{wutkkho gdb kfofkhihdowf/

]nuwhkh}d do nkwhzhgngd{ ~td bd }duihwno howdukniehnu dq}duhdokhn{ xf}hohfod{ kfo {t{ kfi}nduf{/

;Howdu}udwf afun{ kfif {d{hfod{ gd kbn{d/


19/36



[d kfi}ufidwn do }ufkd{f{ gd udjbdqho {feud bf ~td ankd" kif bf ankd x~t ud{tbwngf{ bf`un" }uf}fohdogf nkkhfod{ kfokudwn{ }nun {t idcfun/

Wfid kfownkwf kfo {t dowfuof }nun howduzdohu {fkhnb x }ufjd{hfonbidowd dob" n wunz{ gd nkwhzhgngd{ kfif wunencnu do }ufxdkwf{" d{wtghnu kn{f{ x

}uf}fodu {fbtkho n }ufebdin{/

Gd{nuufbbd bn ntwfofin" db }do{nihdowf kuwhkf" nkwhwtgd{ kfbnefunwhzn{"gd{wudsn{ }ufjd{hfonbd{ x kn}nkhgng gd ntwfdznbtnkho/

Bf{ n{}dkwf{ kbnzd gd d{wn{ idwfgfbf`n{ {fo bf{ {h`thdowd{3

D{wnebdkhihdowf gd fecdwhzf{3 Bn n}bhknkho gd bn{ wkohkn{ ghgkwhkn{ ~td{t}fodo db n}udoghsncd nkwhzf hi}bhkno db d{wnebdkhihdowf kbnuf gd bf{fecdwhzf{ gd n}udoghsncd ~td {d }udwdogdo" wnowf gd kfi}dwdokhn{ `dodunbd{

!wuno{zdu{nbd{( kfif gd bn{ d{}dkjhkn{ !kfofkhihdowf{ gd bn gh{kh}bhon" gd{t{ iwfgf{" dwk/(/

Ufb gdb nbtiof3 Db ufb gdb d{wtghnowd d{ nkwhzf" }nuwhkh}nogf do bnkfo{wutkkho gd {t kfofkhihdowf x ng~thuhdogf inxfu ud{}fo{nehbhgng dowfgf{ bf{ dbdidowf{ gdb }ufkd{f/

Ufb gdb }ufjd{fu3 ]udzhf nb gd{nuufbbf gdb ktu{f3 }bnohjhknu x gh{dnu bn{dq}duhdokhn{ x nkwhzhgngd{ odkd{nuhn{ }nun bn ng~th{hkho gd bf{ n}udoghsncd{}udzh{wf{/ Gtunowd x }f{wduhfuidowd nb gd{nuufbbf gdb ktu{f3 wtwfuhsnu"

jnkhbhwnu" `thnu" ifwhznu" nxtgnu" gnu hojfuinkho gd udwfuof nb nbtiof/

Dznbtnkho3 Bn dznbtnkho gded {du wuno{}nudowd !kbnuhgng x kfokudkhoud{}dkwf n bf{ kuhwduhf{ d hoghkngfud{ gd dznbtnkho(" kfadudowd !kfo bf{fecdwhzf{ gd n}udoghsncd x bn idwfgfbf`n twhbhsngn( x jfuinwhzn !}duihwnudwufnbhidownkho }fu }nuwd gdb }ufjd{fu }nun ifghjhknu duufud{(/

Db ud}duwfuhf gd iwfgf{ nkwhzf{ d{ ni}bhf }fu~td nenukn wnowf bn{ ghoihkn{ xnkwhzhgngd{ ktxf fecdwhzf d{ nkwhznu bn kbn{d in`h{wunb" kfif fwuf{ iwfgf{ i{

kfi}bdcf{ kfif {fo db n}udoghsncd kff}dunwhzf" db n}udoghsncd en{ngf do

}ufebdin{ !]EB( x db iwfgf gdb kn{f !( }duf wnieho wfgn{ n~tdbbn{ ~td}fwdokhdo db n}udoghsncd ntwofif gdb nbtiof/7

7!Jtdowd3aww}3&&d{/phlh}dghn/fu`&phlh&Idwfgfbf nVnkwhzn(
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodolog%C3%ADa_activahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodolog%C3%ADa_activahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodolog%C3%ADa_activahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodolog%C3%ADa_activa


20/36


5= ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

Wkohkn{ x d{wunwd`hn{

N}udoghsncd kff}dunwhzf

Db n}udoghsncd kff}dunwhzf d{ to dojf~td ~td wunwn gd fu`nohsnu bn{ nkwhzhgngd{

gdowuf gdb ntbn }nun kfozduwhubn{ do ton dq}duhdokhn {fkhnb x nkngihkn gdn}udoghsncd/ Bf{ d{wtghnowd{ wunencno do ùt}f }nun udnbhsnu bn{ wnudn{ gd inodunkfbdkwhzn/ Dbn}udoghsncddo d{wd dojf~td gd}dogd gdb howdukniehf gd hojfuinkhodowud bf{ d{wtghnowd{" bf{ ktnbd{ d{wo ifwhzngf{ wnowf }nun bfùnu {t }uf}hfn}udoghsncd kfif }nun nkudkdownu db ohzdb gd bfùf gd bf{ gdi{/

En{ngf do ùt}f{ adwdufòdf{ }nun db gd{nuufbbf gd ghzdu{n{ nkwhzhgngd{ }tdgdgd{dozfbzdu{d n wunz{ gd ghzdu{f{ ho{wutidowf{ gd wunencf" xn ~td bn{howdunkkhfod{ do db ntbn {d gno gd jfuin d{}fowodn/ To dcdi}bf }tdgd {du d{f{kn{f{ do bf{ ~td bf{ }nud{ {d bbd`no n dowdogdu idcfu ~td kfo bn ih{in dq}bhknkho}ud{downgn }fu db gfkdowd/

[h ehdo do bn bhwdunwtun }dgn``hkn whdogd n zdu{d bn udbnkho n}udoghsncdkfbnefunwhzf)kff}dunwhzf kfif {hoohif{" {dò ntwfud{ kfif ]nohws" %Bnghjdudokhn d{dokhnb dowud d{wf{ gf{ }ufkd{f{ gd n}udoghsncd d{ ~td do db }uhiduf bf{nbtiof{ {fo ~thdod{ gh{dno {t d{wutkwtun gd howdunkkhfod{ x inowhdodo db kfowufb{feud bn{ ghjdudowd{ gdkh{hfod{ ~td ud}duktwdo do {t n}udoghsncd" ihdowun{ ~td dodb {d`togf" d{ db }ufjd{fu ~thdo gh{dn x inowhdod kn{h }fu kfi}bdwf db kfowufb dobn d{wutkwtun gd howdunkkhfod{ x gd bf{ ud{tbwngf{ ~td {d ano gd fewdodu/

Bn{ }uhokh}nbd{ hgdn{ do db n}udoghsncd kff}dunwhzf {d }tdgdo gdjhohu do3

>/ Jfuinkho gd ùt}f{3 {wf{ {fo adwdufòdf{" gfogd {d gded kfo{wuthuton hgdowhgng gd ùt}f" }ukwhkn gd bn nxtgn itwtn x bn znbfuhsnkho gd bnhoghzhgtnbhgng }nun bn kudnkho gd ton {hodu`hn/

5/ Howdugd}dogdokhn }f{hwhzn3 D{ odkd{nuhf }ufifzdu bn kn}nkhgng gdkfitohknkho ngdktngn dowud db ùt}f" }nun db dowdoghihdowf gd ~td dbfecdwhzf d{ bn udnbhsnkho gd }ufgtkkhfod{ x ~td {wn{ gdedo udnbhsnu{d gdjfuin kfbdkwhzn/

;/ Ud{}fo{nehbhgng hoghzhgtnb3 Db ud{tbwngf kfif ùt}f {du jhonbidowd bnkfo{dktdokhn gd bn howdunkkho hoghzhgtnb gd bf{ ihdieuf{/ {wn {d n}udkhnudo bn }ud{downkho }ebhkn gd bn wnudn udnbhsngn/

]nun ~td bf{ }towf{ nowduhfud{ {d kfo{fbhgdo" d{ odkd{nuhf ~td db gfkdowd anxn

gd{nuufbbngf bn{ anehbhgngd{ udbnkhfongn{ n bn nowhkh}nkho gd bn{ nkkhfod{/ D{wf d{3}udzdu< wdodu kbnuf db }ufkdghihdowf }nun bn fewdokho gd to ud{tbwngf kfokudwfwnowf gdb inwduhnb ghgkwhkf kfif gdb d{kuhwf" }nun bn udnbhsnkho gd bn nkwhzhgng doktnb~thdun gd bn{ dwn}n{ gdb wunencf/ Db gnu f udkhehu nxtgn of idcfun nb n}udoghsncddo ùt}f" {hof db wdodu bn kfokhdokhn gd odkd{hwnubn" kfitohknu d{wn odkd{hgng dhowdùnu bn nxtgn fjudkhgn do db }uf}hf wunencf/ D{ n{ kfif db wunencf kfbnefunwhzf
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizajehttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizajehttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizajehttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje


21/36


5> ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

kfowuhetxd do db gd{nuufbbf gd anehbhgngd{ kfitohknwhzn{" wunencf do ùt}f xjbdqhehbhgng do db }do{nihdowf/4

N}udoghsncd en{ngf do }ufxdkwf{ & N}udoghsncd en{ngf do }ufebdin{ !NE](:

Kfo{h{wd do ~td to ùt}f gd d{wtghnowd{ gd inodun ntwofin" nto~td `thngf{}fu db }ufjd{fu" gdedo dokfowunu bn ud{}td{wn n ton }ud`town f {fbtkho n to}ufebdin gd jfuin ~td nb kfo{d`thu ud{fbzdubf kfuudkwnidowd {t}fo`n ~td bf{d{wtghnowd{ wtzhdufo ~td et{knu" dowdogdu d howdùnu x n}bhknu bf{ kfokd}wf{ e{hkf{gdb kfowdohgf gdb }ufebdin n{ kfif bf{ udbnkhfongf{/ Bf{ d{wtghnowd{" gd d{wdifgf" kfo{h`tdo dbnefunu to ghnò{whkf gd bn{ odkd{hgngd{ gd n}udoghsncd"kfo{wuthu db kfofkhihdowf gd bn inwduhn x wunencnu kff}dunwhznidowd/

Do {dowhgf d{wuhkwf" db NE] of ud~thdud ~td {d hokbtxn bn {fbtkho gd bn {hwtnkho f}ufebdin }ud{downgf/ Nb hohkhf gd ton inwduhn" db d{wtghnowd of whdod {tjhkhdowd{kfofkhihdowf{ x anehbhgngd{ ~td bd }duihwno" do jfuin djdkwhzn" ud{fbzdu db}ufebdin/ Db fecdwhzf" do d{wn{ dwn}n{" d{ ~td db d{wtghnowd {dn kn}ns gdgd{kteuhu ~t odkd{hwn kfofkdu }nun nznosnu do bn ud{fbtkho gd bnktd{who }uf}td{wn !ghnò{whkf gd odkd{hgngd{ gd n}udoghsncd(/ N bfbnu`f gdb }ufkd{f dgtknwhzf" n idghgn ~td db d{wtghnowd }ufùd{n do db }ufùnin {dd{}dun ~td {dn kfi}dwdowd do }bnohjhknu x bbdznu n knef howduzdokhfod{ ~td bd}duihwhuo" jhonbidowd ud{fbzdu db }ufebdin gd jfuin ngdktngn !kfo{wutkkho gdbkfofkhihdowf(/X wfgf dbbf" wunencnogf gd inodun kff}dunwhzn !(/

Ud{tbwn whb kfi}nunu d{wd wh}f gd }uf}td{wn" kfo bn do{dnosn wunghkhfonb" gdinodun gd }fgdu zh{tnbhsnu bn{ ghjdudokhn{ {t{wnokhnbd{ ~td {d gno dowud bf{ gf{3

WUNGHKHFONB NE]Db }ufjd{fu n{tid db ufb gd dq}duwf fntwfuhgng jfuinb/

Db }ufjd{fu whdod to ufb gd jnkhbhwngfu"wtwfu" `tn" kf)n}udoghs" n{d{fu/

Bf{ }ufjd{fud{ wuno{ihwdo bnhojfuinkho nb nbtiongf/

Db nbtiongf wfin bn ud{}fo{nehbhgng gdn}udogdu x kudnu nbhnosn{ dowud nbtiofx }ufjd{fu/

Bf{ }ufjd{fud{ fu`nohsno db kfowdohgfdo dq}f{hkhfod{ gd nktdugf n {tgh{kh}bhon/

Bf{ }ufjd{fud{ gh{dno {t ktu{f en{ngfdo }ufebdin{ nehduwf{/

4Jtdowd3aww}3&&d{/phlh}dghn/fu`&phlh&N}udoghsncdVkff}dunwhzf

:N]E d{ {hoohif gd ]EB !]ufcdkw En{dg Bdnuoho` & ]ufebdi En{dg Bdnuoho`(
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_cooperativohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_cooperativohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_cooperativohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_cooperativo


22/36



Db nbtiongf d{ zh{wf kfif udkd}wfu}n{hzf gd hojfuinkho/

Bf{ }ufjd{fud{ et{kno idcfunu bnhohkhnwhzn gdb nbtiongf x ifwhznubf{/Zdo n db nbtiongf" kfif {tcdwf{ ~td}tdgdo n}udogdu }fu ktdown }uf}hn/

Bn{ dq}f{hkhfod{ gdb }ufjd{fu {fo

en{ngn{ do kfitohknkhotohghudkkhfonb/

Db nbtiongf wunencn do d~th}f{ }nun

ud{fbzdu }ufebdin{" ng~thdudo x n}bhknodb kfofkhihdowf do ton znuhdgng gdkfowdqwf{/

Db n}udoghsncd d{ hoghzhgtnb x gdkfi}dwdokhn/

Db nbtiongf howdunkkhfon x n}udogd doto niehdowd kfbnefunwhzf/

Do db n}udoghsncd wunghkhfonb bn hgdowhjhknkho gd odkd{hgngd{ gd n}udoghsncd x bndq}f{hkho gd kfofkhihdowf{ d{w n knu`f gdb }ufjd{fu !whdod }uhokh}hf x jho do bnnkwhzhgng gfkdowd(/ Do db NE]" db nbtiof ng~thdud db iqhif }ufwn`foh{if nbhgdowhjhknu {t{ odkd{hgngd{ gd n}udoghsncd x et{knu db kfofkhihdowf }nun gnuud{}td{wn n to }ufebdin }bnowdngf" bf ~td n {t zds `dodun otdzn{ odkd{hgngd{ gd

n}udoghsncd/Ifunbd{ x Bnogn 0 d{wnebdkdo ~td db gd{nuufbbf gdb }ufkd{f gd NE] fktuud do fkafjn{d{3

>/ Bddu x nonbhsnu db }ufebdin3 {d et{kn ~td db nbtiongf dowhdogno dbdotokhngf x bf ~td {d bd{ gdinogn/

5/ Udnbhsnu ton bbtzhn gd hgdn{3 {t}fod ~td db nbtiongf wfido kfokhdokhn gd bn{hwtnkho n bn ~td {d dojudowno/

;/ Ankdu ton bh{wn gd n~tdbbf ~td {d kfofkd3 hi}bhkn ~td db nbtiongf udktuun nn~tdbbf{ kfofkhihdowf{ gd bf{ ~td xn gh{}fod" n bf{ gdwnbbd{ gdb }ufebdin~td kfofkd x ~td }fgu twhbhsnu }nun {t }f{wduhfu ud{fbtkho/

7/ Ankdu ton bh{wn kfo n~tdbbf ~td of {d kfofkd3 d{wd }n{f }udwdogd ankdukfo{khdowd bf ~td of {d {ned x ~td odkd{hwnuo }nun ud{fbzdu db }ufebdin"hokbt{f d{ gd{dnebd ~td }tdgno jfuitbnu }ud`town{ ~td fuhdowdo bnud{fbtkho gdb }ufebdin/

4/ Ankdu ton bh{wn kfo n~tdbbf ~td odkd{hwn ankdu{d }nun ud{fbzdu db }ufebdin3db nbtiongf gded }bnowdnu{d bn{ nkkhfod{ n {d`thu }nun udnbhsnu bn ud{fbtkho/

:/ Gdjhohu db }ufebdin3 {d wunwn kfokudwnidowd db }ufebdin ~td zno n ud{fbzdu xdo db ~td {d zno n kdowunu/

0/ Fewdodu hojfuinkho3 n~t {d d{}dun ~td db nbtiongf {d gh{wuhetxn bn{wnudn{ gd e{~tdgn gd bn hojfuinkho/

1/ ]ud{downu ud{tbwngf{3 do d{wd }n{f {d d{}dun ~td db nbtiongf ~td anxnowunencngf do `ut}f d{wtghd x kfi}udogn" n bn zds ~td kfi}nuwn bnhojfuinkho fewdohgn do db }n{f 0" x }fu bwhif ~td dbnefud ghkan

0IFUNBD[" ]/ X BNOGN" Z/ !5==7(/ N}udoghsncd en{ngf do }ufebdin{" do Wadfuhn" Zfb/>;/ ]`{/ >74)>40


23/36


5; ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

hojfuinkho gd inodun kfoctown }nun }fgdu ud{fbzdu bn {hwtnkho}bnowdngn/1

UDKTU[F[ GHGKWHKF[

Dowud bf{ ibwh}bd{ idghf{ gh{}fohebd{ }nun bn gfkdokhn" {dbdkkhfonif{ bf{{h`thdowd{ nwdoghdogf n bf{ fecdwhzf{ x bn idwfgfbf`n }udzh{wn/

Udktu{f{ inwduhnbd{

D{ hi}ud{khoghebd ton {nbn gd hojfuiwhkn }nun udnbhsnu bn{ }ukwhkn{/ Db ntbn gdedugh{}fodu kfif iohif gd to fugdongfu }fu kngn gf{ nbtiof{ x kfif hgdnb tofugdongfu }fu nbtiof/

Db {fjwpnud odkd{nuhf do kngn tof gd bf{ fugdongfud{3 Db {h{wdin f}dunwhzf Phogfp{ 0&INQ/ Bn {thwd fjhiwhkn Ihkuf{fjw Fjjhkd 5=>= & [to Ihkuf{x{wdi{ F}doFjjhkd/ @ff`bd Kaufid/ Dqwdo{hfod{ gdb onzd`ngfu udkfidogngn{3 Bn{w]n{{" Ghh`f" Dzduofwd"

Ptogdubh{w" Udidiedu wad ihbl !ho{wnbnebd{ ùnwthwnidowd gd{gd KaufidPde [wfud" d{ odkd{nuhf db ud`h{wuf }nun fewdodu ktdown gd t{tnuhf ùnwthwn(/

Guf}efq !d{ odkd{nuhf db ud`h{wuf }nun fewdodu ktdown gd t{tnuhf ùnwthwn(/ Ktdown gd kfuudf dbdkwuohkf !{d udkfihdogn @inhb }fu {t howdùnkho kfoitkan{ fwun{ n}bhknkhfod{ gd }ufgtkwhzhgng }du{fonb(/ [fjwpnud nowhzhut{ ùnwthwf f gd }n`f/ Fwuf {fjwpnud ùnwthwf f gd }utden !udkfidogngf [fjwfohk/kfi x

n}bhknkhfod{ gd Kaufid Pde [wfud(

[hwhf{ pde udkfidogngf{3 {d }foguo n gh{}f{hkho gdb nbtiongf do bn pde gdbn }ufjd{fun8/

]hsnuun zdbbdgn Howduodw3 kfodqho gd nbwn zdbfkhgng NG[B x&f PHJH/ Idghf{ Ntghfzh{tnbd{3 kno gd hi`dod{/

1Jtdowd3aww}3&&d{/phlh}dghn/fu`&phlh&N}udoghsncdVen{ngfVdoV}ufebdin{

8aww}3&&{hwd{/`ff`bd/kfi&{hwd&kkuh{wnokah
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_basado_en_problemashttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_basado_en_problemashttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_basado_en_problemashttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_basado_en_problemas


24/36



Udktu{f{ of inwduhnbd{

[dun howdud{nowd }fgdu n{h{whu kfo db nbtiongf n nb`ton jduhn hojfuiwhkn do bn ~td}tdgno fe{duznu gd kdukn bf{ bwhif{ }ufgtkwf{ ~td n}nudkdo do db idukngf![HIF(/

Jnzfudkdu bn zh{hwn f dowudzh{wn }fu }nuwd gdb nbtiongf gd dq}duwf{ ~td }tdgnon}fuwnu {t dq}duhdokhn bnefunb f zhwnb }nun bn kfo{dktkho gd fecdwhzf{ gd d{wn}ufùninkho/

KUHWDUHF[ GD DZNBTNKHO

Db U/G/ >:44&>887 gd 55 gd Ctbhf }fu db ~td {d d{wnebdkd db Wwtbf gd Wkohkf doKfidukhf x {t{ kfuud{}foghdowd{ do{dnosn{ iohin{ hoghkn ktbd{ {fo bf{kuhwduhf{ gd dznbtnkho gdb igtbf gd N}bhknkhfod{ Hojfuiwhkn{ gd ]uf}{hwf

@dodunb x {t udbnkho kfo bn{ kn}nkhgngd{ wduihonbd{ gdb ih{if" {dò {d gdwnbbn nkfowhotnkho/

Bf{ wdin{ f kfowdohgf{ ncdof{ nb }ufùnin fjhkhnb ~td hokbtxf do d{wn}ufùninkho {d nngdo gd{}t{ gd bf{ kfowdohgf{ iohif{ inukngf{ }fu bn Bdx/


25/36



KN]NKHGNGD[ WDUIHONBD[ KUHWDUHF[ GD DZNBTNKHO

Howdu}udwnu bn{ jtokhfod{ e{hkn{ gd bf{dbdidowf{ b`hkf{ x j{hkf{ ~td kfi}fodoto {h{wdin hojfuiwhkf/

Dq}bhknu bn{ jtokhfod{ e{hkn{ gd bn tohgng kdowunb gd }ufkd{f x gd bf{d~th}f{ }duhjuhkf{" udbnkhfoogfbn{ kfo bn{ jn{d{ kfitod{ gd to}ufkd{f gd gnwf{/

Gh{who`thu bn{ jtokhfod{ e{hkn{ gd bn idifuhn howduon" }udkh{nogf bnhokhgdokhn gd {t kn}nkhgng gd nbinkdonihdowf do bn{ }ud{wnkhfod{

gdb {h{wdin hojfuiwhkf/ Kbn{hjhknu bf{ d~th}f{ }duhjuhkf{ twhbhsngf{ anehwtnbidowd {dò {t

jtokho do db }ufkd{f gd gnwf{/ Gh{who`thu bn{ knunkwdu{whkn{ e{hkn{ gd bf{ gh{whowf{ {f}fuwd{ gd

nukahzf twhbhsngf{ anehwtnbidowd do db {dìdowf gd fugdongfud{}du{fonbd{/

Gd{kuhehu bn{ knunkwdu{whkn{ `dodunbd{ gd nb`tof{ ifgdbf{ wh}f do dbidukngf gd fugdongfud{ }du{fonbd{/

]udkh{nu db kfokd}wf gd exwd x gdjhohu {t{ ibwh}bf{/ Gdjhohu db kfokd}wf gd }ufùnin/ ]udkh{nu bf{ kfokd}wf{ gd ud`h{wuf x nukahzf hojfuiwhkf/ Dq}bhknu db kfokd}wf gd n}bhknkho hojfuiwhkn x dotidunu bn{

twhbhgngd{ wh}f do bn d{who di}ud{nuhnb/ N }nuwhu gd to kn{f }ukwhkf {feud to {h{wdin hojfuiwhkf gdb ~td {d

gh{}fod gd to {fjwpnud ho{wnbngf x gd {t gfktidownkho e{hkn"hgdowhjhknu3 db anugpnud gdb {h{wdin" db {h{wdin f}dunwhzf x {t{knunkwdu{whkn{/ Bn kfojh`tunkho gdb {h{wdin/ Bn{ n}bhknkhfod{ho{wnbngn{/ Bf{ {f}fuwd{ gd hojfuinkho twhbhsngf{ }fu db {h{wdin/

N}bhknu" kfif t{tnuhf" bn{ twhbhgngd{" Dq}bhknu d{wutkwtun" jtokhfod{ x knunkwdu{whkn{ e{hkn{ gd to {h{wdin


26/36


5: ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

jtokhfod{ x }ufkdghihdowf{ gd to {h{wdinf}dunwhzf ifoft{tnuhf/

f}dunwhzf ifoft{tnuhf/ Ho{wnbnu to {h{wdin f}dunwhzf ifoft{tnuhf/ ]udkh{nu db kfokd}wf gd kfinogf" gh{who`thdogf dowud kfinogf{

howduof{ x dqwduof{/ ]fodu do jtokhfonihdowf db d~th}f hojfuiwhkf x zduhjhknu bf{

gh{whowf{ }n{f{ ~td whdodo bt`nu" hgdowhjhknogf bn{ jtokhfod{ gd knu`ngdb {h{wdin f}dunwhzf/

N }nuwhu gd {t}td{wf{ }ukwhkf{3 inodcnu bn{ twhbhgngd{" jtokhfod{ x}ufkdghihdowf{ gdb {h{wdin f}dunwhzf" ct{whjhknogf bn {hownqh{ f" do {tkn{f" db }ufwfkfbf gd f}dunkho/

Kudnu jhkaduf{ ~td inodcdo ugdod{ gdb {h{wdin f}dunwhzf/N}bhknu bf{ kfinogf{ f ho{wutkkhfod{odkd{nuhf{ }nun bn udnbhsnkho gdf}dunkhfod{ e{hkn{ kfo to {h{wdinkfodkwngf do udg gd udn bfknb/

Gd{kuhehu bn{ jtokhfod{ e{hkn{ gdb {duzhgfu gd udg/ Dq}bhknu bn {hownqh{ udbnwhzn n bf{ kfinogf{ d ho{wutkkhfod{ e{hkn{

gdb {h{wdin f}dunwhzf gd udg/ Do to kn{f }ukwhkf udnbhsnu" n wunz{ gdb {h{wdin f}dunwhzf gd udg"

f}dunkhfod{ gd kf}hn" nkwtnbhsnkho x wuno{ih{ho gd bn hojfuinkhonbinkdongn }udzhnidowd do db gh{kf gtuf gdb {duzhgfu/

Inodcnu" kfif t{tnuhf" to }ufkd{ngfu gdwdqwf" ton afcn gd kbktbf x ton en{d gdgnwf{ x n}bhknu }ufkdghihdowf{ ~td`nunowhkdo bn howd`uhgng" {d`tuhgng"gh{}fohehbhgng x kfojhgdokhnbhgng gd bnhojfuinkho nbinkdongn/

Gh{who`thu" hgdowhjhknu x dq}bhknu bn jtokho gd bn{ n}bhknkhfod{ gd3}ufkd{ngfu gd wdqwf{" afcn gd kbktbf x en{d gd gnwf{/

Ho{wnbnu ngdktngnidowd bn{ n}bhknkhfod{ hojfuiwhkn{ do db {h{wdinf}dunwhzf/

Nkkdgdu n bn{ n}bhknkhfod{ gd wunwnihdowf gd wdqwf{" afcn{ gd kbktbf xen{d gd gnwf{" n wunz{ gd }ufkdghihdowf{ gdjhohgf{/

N }nuwhu gd {t}td{wf{ }ukwhkf{3


27/36



Inodcnu db }ufkd{ngfu gd wdqwf" twhbhsnogf bn{ jtokhfod{"}ufkdghihdowf{ x twhbhgngd{ dbdidownbd{ }nun bn dghkho"udkt}dunkho" ifghjhknkho" nbinkdonihdowf" howd`unkho" dwk/ gdwdqwf{/

Inodcnu afcn{ gd kbktbf twhbhsnogf bn{ jtokhfod{" }ufkdghihdowf{x twhbhgngd{ dbdidownbd{ }nun db wunwnihdowf gd gnwf{/ Inodcnuen{d{ gd gnwf{ twhbhsnogf bn{ jtokhfod{" }ufkdghihdowf{ xtwhbhgngd{ dbdidownbd{ }nun db nbinkdonihdowf gd gnwf{/

Howdukniehnu gnwf{ f hojfuinkho dowud n}bhknkhfod{ gdwunwnihdowf gd wdqwf{" afcn gd kbktbf x en{d{ gd gnwf{/

Dbnefunu" kf}hnu" wuno{kuhehu x kti}bhidownu hojfuinkho xgfktidownkho/

Udnbhsnu kf}hn{ gd {d`tuhgng gd bf{ }n~tdwd{ gd n}bhknkho x gd bnhojfuinkho inodcngn n}bhknogf bn{ ho{wutkkhfod{ udjbdcngn{ dobf{ inotnbd{/

Ct{whjhknu bn odkd{hgng gd kfofkdu x twhbhsnu }duhghknidowdidknoh{if{ f }ufkdghihdowf{ gd {nbzn`tnugn x }ufwdkkho gd bnhojfuinkho/

N }nuwhu gd kn{f{ }ukwhkf{3f Howdu}udwnu bf{ }ufkdghihdowf{ gd {d`tuhgng" }ufwdkkho d

howd`uhgng d{wnebdkhgf{ do db {h{wdin/f N}bhknu bf{ }ufkdghihdowf{ nowduhfud{ gd{gd db {h{wdin

f}dunwhzf" gd{gd db anugpnud x&f gd{gd ton n}bhknkho/f Gdwdkwnu jnbbf{ do bf{ }ufkdghihdowf{ gd {d`tuhgng x

}ufwdkkho d{wnebdkhgf{ x twhbhsngf{/f Nu`tidownu x }uf}fodu {fbtkhfod{/


28/36



KFOWDOHGF[ NCDOF[ NB UDNBGDKUDWF GD IOHIF[

KUHWDUHF[ GD DZNBTNKHO

GDUDKAF[ X UD[]FO[NEHBHGNGD[DO HOWDUODW

Kfofkdu" ud{}dwnu x twhbhsnu kfuudkwnidowd bn{ bhkdokhn{ gdt{f&gh{wuhetkho gd }ufgtkwf{ gh`hwnbd{ ncdof{ khwnogf bn ntwfun x bn

jtdowd gd bn hojfuinkho twhbhsngn" udtwhbhsngn f gh{wuhethgn/

]UFGTKWHZHGNG ]DU[FONB N}bhknu {h{wdiwhknidowd bn }bnohjhknkho onwtunb do `dodunb" x dbiwfgf @WG do }nuwhktbnu n bn }bnohjhknkho gd }ufxdkwf{ gdn}udoghsncd twhbhsnogf gh{}f{hwhzf{ kf`ohwhzf{ jhnebd{ !Ptogdubh{w"UWI" knu}dwn{ nukahzngfun{" bh{wn{ gd wnudn{(

]UD[DOWNKHFOD[ Udnbhsnu }ud{downkhfod{ do }ebhkf nwunkwhzn{" }duwhodowd{" ~tdkfodkwdo kfo db }ebhkf" kfo bn `d{wtnbhgng ngdktngn" kfo bn

zd{whidown n}uf}hngn" kfo db zfknetbnuhf ngdktngf" kfo bf{ idghf{{do{fuhnbd{ odkd{nuhf{" do db whdi}f }udzh{wf" x kfo to }bnonbwduonwhzf }fu {h bf{ idghf{ wdkofb`hkf{ jnbbno/

N]BHKNKHFOD[ PDE Twhbhsnu bn{ dqwdo{hfod{ gdb onzd`ngfu" n}bhknkhfod{ kfo f {ho ud`h{wufx gdi{ kfi}bdidowf{ gd bn pde }nun kfo{d`thu inxfu}ufgtkwhzhgng" fu`nohsnkho gd inukngfud{ {fkhnbd{" jtokhfonbhgng

x&f idcfu gh{df do db }ufxdkwf gd kbn{d/


29/36



]UFKDGHIHDOWF[ GD DZNBTNKHO>=

Bn dznbtnkho wdogu kfif udjdudowd bf{ fecdwhzf{ gdb igtbf x bf{ kuhwduhf{ gddznbtnkho ~td ad {dnbngf do db d}ùnjd nowduhfu" bf{ }uhokh}hf{ idwfgfb`hkf{]EB" bn ntwfznbfunkho gdb nbtiof" bn znbfunkho dowud }nud{ x ih }uf}hn }ukwhkn

gfkdowd/

Bn dznbtnkho {du kfowhotn>>" jfuinwhzn x {tinwhzn/ Bf{ }ufkdghihdowf{ gddznbtnkho kfo{h{whuo do3

Udnbhsnkho gd to oiduf znuhnebd gd nkwhzhgngd{&wnudn{ do db wnbbdu gdhojfuiwhkn x dzdowtnbidowd jtdun gd b/ Db oiduf gd nkwhzhgngd{ }fgu znuhnugd ton dznbtnkho n fwun/ Hokbtxf n~t bn{ wnudn{ gd ntwfdznbtnkho x bndznbtnkho dowud }nud{/

Udnbhsnkho gd to dqnido gd kfofkhihdowf{ iohif{ nb jhonb gd kngn wuhid{wud/Bf{ ho{wutidowf{ gd dznbtnkho }nun bn{ nkwhzhgngd{&wnudn{&}ufxdkwf{ {duo bn{inwuhkd{ gd znbfunkho d{}dkjhkn{ f ueuhkn{/ Ton ueuhkn }fgundq}bhknu{d kfif to bh{wngf gdb kfoctowf gd kuhwduhf{ d{}dkjhkf{ x jtognidownbd{~td }duihwdo znbfunu db n}udoghsncd" bf{ kfofkhihdowf{ x&f bn{ kfi}dwdokhn{"bfùngf{ }fu db d{wtghnowd do to wunencf f inwduhn }nuwhktbnu/ Kfo d{d jho d{wnebdkdton ùngnkho !ohzdbd{( gd bn knbhgng gd bf{ ghjdudowd{ kuhwduhf{ kfo bf{ ~td {d }tdgdgd{nuufbbnu to fecdwhzf" ton kfi}dwdokhn" to kfowdohgf f ktnb~thdu fwuf wh}f gdwnudn ~td {d bbdzd n knef do db }ufkd{f gd n}udoghsncd/ @dodunbidowd {d gh{dn gdinodun ~td db d{wtghnowd }tdgn {du dznbtngf do jfuin %fecdwhzn% x kfo{h{wdowd/ Nbih{if whdi}f }duihwd nb }ufjd{fu d{}dkhjhknu kbnunidowd ~t d{}dun gdb d{wtghnowdx ktbd{ {fo bf{ kuhwduhf{ kfo bf{ ~td {d zno n knbhjhknu to fecdwhzf }udzhnidowdd{wnebdkhgf" to wunencf" ton }ud{downkho f to ud}fuwd d{kuhwf" gd nktdugf kfo dbwh}f gd nkwhzhgng ~td gd{nuufbbd kfo bf{ nbtiof{ !(/

Ton Inwuhs gd Znbfunkho {huzd }nun nzduh`tnu kif d{w n}udoghdogf dbd{wtghnowd" x do d{d {dowhgf {d }tdgd kfo{hgdunu kfif ton aduunihdown gddznbtnkho jfuinwhzn" ktnogf {d kfozhduwd do }nuwd howdùnb gdb }ufkd{f gdn}udoghsncd/ D{wf {d bfùn do bn{ {h`thdowd{ {hwtnkhfod{3 ktnogf n bf{ d{wtghnowd{ {d

bd{ hozfbtkun do db }ufkd{f gd dznbtnkho gd {t }uf}hf wunencf !ntwf dznbtnkho(" gdbwunencf gd {t{ kfi}nduf{ f ktnogf db d{wtghnowd" jnihbhnuhsngf xn kfo bn Inwuhs

>=>=

Do wfgf bf of udkf`hgf do d{wn }ufùninkho" {d d{wnu n bf gh{}td{wf do bn ]ufùninkho inukf gdb

Gd}nuwnidowf gd Kfidukhf/

>>Do db {dowhgf udkf`hgf do db {h`thdowd nuwktbf3aww}3&&ppp/tfk/dgt&ut{k&;&>&gw&d{}&gdb`ngfVfbhzdu/}gj
http://www.uoc.edu/rusc/3/1/dt/esp/delgado_oliver.pdfhttp://www.uoc.edu/rusc/3/1/dt/esp/delgado_oliver.pdfhttp://www.uoc.edu/rusc/3/1/dt/esp/delgado_oliver.pdfhttp://www.uoc.edu/rusc/3/1/dt/esp/delgado_oliver.pdf


30/36


;= ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

gd Znbfunkho" }nuwhkh}n do {t gh{df/ >5

Bn{ ueuhkn{ }fguo {du kfi}udado{hzn{ f nonbwhkn{" gd}doghdogf gdb wh}f gddznbtnkho ~td {d }udwdogn !{tinwhzn f jfuinwhzn(/ To dcdi}bf gd ueuhknkfi}udado{hzn n}bhknebd n nb`ton{ nkwhzhgngd{ x n bn{ }utden{ fecdwhzn{ gdiohif{" {dun db {h`thdowd3

>5Khwn dqwungn gdb nuwktbf gd Ctno Knubf{ B}ds @nukn do Dgtknwdln3

aww}3&&ppp/dgtwdln/fu`&InwuhsZnbfunkhfo/}a};

Gd{kuh}kho

4 Gditd{wun wfwnb kfi}udo{ho gdb }ufebdin/ Wfgf{ bf{ ud~tduhihdowf{ gd bn wnudn d{wo hokbthgf{

do bn ud{}td{wn

7 Gditd{wun kfo{hgdunebd kfi}udo{ho gdb }ufebdin/ Wfgf{ bf{ ud~tduhihdowf{ gd bn wnudn d{wo

hokbthgf{ do bn ud{}td{wn/

; Gditd{wun kfi}udo{ho }nukhnb gdb }ufebdin/ Bn inxfu knowhgng gd ud~tduhihdowf{ gd bn wnudn

d{wo kfi}udoghgf{ do bn ud{}td{wn/

5 Gditd{wun }fkn kfi}udo{ho gdb }ufebdin/ Itkaf{ gd bf{ ud~tduhihdowf{ gd bn wnudn jnbwno do bnud{}td{wn/

> Of kfi}udogd db }ufebdin/

= Of ud{}fogd/ Of howdow ankdu bn wnudn/
http://www.eduteka.org/MatrizValoracion.php3http://www.eduteka.org/MatrizValoracion.php3http://www.eduteka.org/MatrizValoracion.php3


31/36


;> ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

Ton ueuhkn nonbwhkn wdogun db {h`thdowd n{}dkwf3

Gd{nuufbbnu bn ueuhkn kfokudwn gd kngn wnudn&}ufxdkwf&nkwhzhgng nonbhsnogf bf{dbdidowf{ ktuuhktbnud{ kdowunbd{ x nnghgf{" do jtokho gd3 db wh}f gd nkwhzhgng !gdhohkhf" howduidghn f jhonb( x db jfuinwf gd }ud{downkho ngdktngf/ Do kngn ueuhkn

d{wnebdkdu bf{ kuhwduhf{ f ghido{hfod{ ~td wdogu do ktdown }nun dznbtnu !fecdwhzf{gd gd{di}df" kfi}fuwnihdowf" knbhgng" dwk/( x bf{ ohzdbd{ gd gd{di}df !encf"iohif" }fu dokhin gd bn idghn" nbwf(/ Bn dowud`nu nb nbtiongf do db ih{ififidowf gd doknu`nu bn wnudn" kfif }nuwd gd to `tho !}n{f{ gd wunencf( ~tdwdogu bn d{wutkwtun `douhkn gd{nuufbbngn do db n}nuwngf Kfowdohgf{ gd bn]uf`uninkho/ Of gd{knuwf bn }nuwhkh}nkho gdb nbtiongf do db gh{df f}dujdkkhfonihdowf gd bn ueuhkn/

Do ktnowf n ih }ukwhkn gfkdowd" udjbdqhfonu {feud bf{ ud{tbwngf{ fewdohgf{}uf}fohdogf ~td znbfudo ih gd{di}df x bn idwfgfbf`n ]EB idghnowd ton

nkwhzhgng jhonb !nowd{ gd bn{ znknkhfod{ gd zdunof( ~td fjudkdu nb nbtiongf ctowfkfo ton ueuhkn gd udjdudokhn }nun bn dznbtnkho gd bn }ukwhkn gdb ifgdbf ]EB>;/

>;Etkl Ho{whwtwd jfu Dgtknwhfo3 ]EB D{{dowhnb Dbdidow{ Kadklbh{w/ppp/ehd/fu`" 5=>>/
http://www.bie.org/http://www.bie.org/http://www.bie.org/http://www.bie.org/


32/36


;5 ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

KUHWDUHF[ GD KNBHJHKNKHO

Bf{ nbtiof{ {duo knbhjhkngf{ nb jhonb gd kngn wuhid{wud do {d{hfod{ gd dznbtnkho/

Bn knbhjhknkho {d udnbhsnu gd = n >= wnowf do wnudn{&nkwhzhgngd{ kfif do dqidod{"

wdohdogf do ktdown bn{ {h`thdowd{ }udih{n{3

[bf {d knbhjhknuo bn{ wnudn{&nkwhzhgngd{ }ud{downgn{ do db }bnsfhoghkngf do kngn wuhid{wud/ [h of {d dowud`n n whdi}f nb`ton nkwhzhgng" of{d udkf`du do fwuf ifidowf" {d knbhjhknu kfo kduf x anu idghn nuhwiwhkn kfobn knbhjhknkho gd wfgn{ bn{ gdi{/[du febh`nwfuhf udnbhsnu to dqnido wuhid{wunb gd kfowdohgf{iohif{ }nun }fgdu n}ufenu db wuhid{wud x wdodu gdudkaf n bnknbhjhknkho }fogdungn/[h to nbtiof of {d }ud{down nb dqnido" {t{}dogdu bn dznbtnkho

hogd}doghdowdidowd gd bn{ wnudn{ ~td atehdun dowud`ngf n whdi}f3f [h of }ud{down ct{whjhknowd ighkf f gd gdedu hodqkt{nebd do db }bnsf ~td

gdwduihono bn{ Ofuin{ gd Kfozhzdokhn gdb Kdowuf" kfif ofuin `dodunbOF {d bd ud}dwhu db dqnido" ~tdgnogf bn dznbtnkho {t{}do{n/

f [h }ud{down ct{whjhknowd ighkf f gd gdedu hodqkt{nebd do db }bnsf ~tdgdwduihono bn{ Ofuin{ gd Kfozhzdokhn gdb Kdowuf" }fgu ud}dwhu dbdqnido do bn jdkan ~td gh{}fo`n bn }ufjd{fun !n {t kuhwduhf( x ~td {dkfitohknu nb nbtiof kfo nb idof{ > gn gd nowdbnkho/

[h {d }ud{down nb dqnido" bn ofwn fewdohgn {d wdogu do ktdown }nun fewdodu bnofwn gdb efbdwo do db }fukdowncd ~td jh`tun n kfowhotnkho/

Bn ofwn wuhid{wunb gdb efbdwo {d knbktbnu kfojfuid n bn {h`thdowd wnebn gd}fogdunkhfod{3

WNUDN[&]UFXDKWF[ 0=$

DQNIDO ;=$

Bn knbhjhknkho gd kngn dznbtnkho wdogu to znbfu dowud > x >= {ho gdkhinbd{/ [dkfo{hgdunuo n}ufengf{ {bf n~tdbbf{ nbtiof{ ~td fewdo`no ton knbhjhknkhoh`tnb f inxfu ~td 4/ Bf{ udgfogdf{ do kngn dznbtnkho {d anuo kfo udgfogdfofuinb/

DQNIDOD[ GD UDKT]DUNKHO


33/36


;; ]ufj/ Knufbhon Kuh{wnokah ]fbf

Aneu to dqnido gd udkt}dunkho gd bn > dznbtnkho n bf bnu`f gd bn 5dznbtnkho" x to dqnido gd udkt}dunkho gd bn 5 dznbtnkho n bf bnu`f gd bn ;dznbtnkho/ Gngf ~td bn ofwn gd bn ; dznbtnkho gd}dogd ghudkwnidowd gd bn{nkwhzhgngd{ udnbhsngn{ gtunowd bn{ 5 dznbtnkhfod{ nowduhfud{" {h to nbtiof whdod{t{}do{n{ bn{ 5 }uhidun{ dznbtnkhfod{" whdod ~td udnbhsnu febh`nwfuhnidowd db

dqnido gd ctohf }nun udkt}dunubn{" of wdohdogf f}kho nb n}ufengf do bn ;dznbtnkho !whdod ~td }ud{downu{d nb dqnido `bfenb gd wfgf db ktu{f(/ ]nun knbktbnubn ofwn gd bf{ dqidod{ gd udkt}dunkho of {d wdoguo do ktdown bn{ nkwhzhgngd{~td {d anxn dowud`ngf n whdi}f" {bf bn ofwn gdb dqnido/

]UGHGN GD DZNBTNKHO KFOWHOTN

Bn }ughgn gd bn dznbtnkho kfowhotn d{w ud`tbngn do db Ud`bnidowf gd U`hidoHowduhfu gdb Kdowuf/

Db nbtiof ~td }hdugn bn dznbtnkho kfowhotn {d }ud{downu n bn }utden jhonb gdCtohf kfo db igtbf kfi}bdwf/

Bn }ughgn gd dznbtnkho kfowhotn {t}fod db {t{}do{f gdb nbtiof do db wuhid{wuddo db ~td nktitbn bn{ jnbwn{ hoct{whjhkngn{" d hi}bhkn ~td" {h of notbn inwuktbn dobf{ }bnsf{ fjhkhnbd{ }udzh{wf{" }fgu }ud{downu{d n dqnido gdb igtbf kfi}bdwf dobn kfozfknwfuhn fughonuhn gd ctohf x&f dqwunfughonuhn gd {d}whdieud" x {du dznbtngfx knbhjhkngf do bf{ wuihof{ ~td udkf`d d{wn }uf`uninkho kfo hogd}dogdokhngd bn{ knbhjhknkhfod{ ~td atehd{do }fghgf fewdodu an{wn }ufgtkhu{d bnkhukto{wnokhn gd bn }ughgn gdb gdudkaf n dznbtnkho kfowhotn/

]UGHGN GD INWUKTBN

Bn }ughgn gd inwuktbn d{w ud`tbngn do db Ud`bnidowf gd U`hido Howduhfu gdbKdowuf/

DQIDOD[ CTOHF" KFOZFKNWFUHN FUGHONUHN

N bn }utden gd ctohf {d }ud{down db nbtiongf > 5 dznbtnkhfod{ of {t}dungn{ !kfo}towtnkho idofu gd khokf( f kfo }ughgn gd bn dznbtnkho kfowhotn/ N{" }tdgdo

dqh{whu znuhf{ wh}f{ gd nbtiof{3 bf{ ~td whdodo > dznbtnkho }doghdowd f bn{ ;/ Dod{wd {d`togf `ut}f dowununo bf{ ~td whdodo 5 dznbtnkhfod{ }doghdowd{ }duf gdedo}ud{downu{d wnieho n bn ; }fu of wdodu f}kho nb n}ufengf" x bf{ ~td }dughdufogdudkaf n bn dznbtnkho kfowhotn !~td gdeduo }ud{downu{d kfo db igtbfkfi}bdwf(/


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Do bn knbhjhknkho gd ctohf" wnowf }nun nbtiof{ kfo nb`ton dznbtnkho of {t}dungnkfif }nun bf{ gd }ughgn gd dznbtnkho kfowhotn" {bf {d wdogu do kfo{hgdunkhobn ofwn gdb dqnido/

DZNBTNKHO JHONB

Bn dznbtnkho jhonb d{ ton idghn gd bn{ knbhjhknkhfod{ fewdohgn{ do kngn ton gd bn{dznbtnkhfod{" {hdi}ud ~td {wn{ d{wo {t}dungn{ !}towtnkho h`tnb f inxfu ~tdkhokf(/ Do bn dznbtnkho jhonb" db ud{tbwngf gdb }ufidghf d{ udgfogdngf kfoudgfogdf ofuinb3 {h db }uhidu gdkhinb d{ inxfu f h`tnb n 4" {d udgfogdn n bn tohgng{h`thdowd< gd bf kfowunuhf" {d inowhdod bn tohgng h`tnb ~td d{wnen/

Dqkd}khfonbidowd" {h db nbtiof an gdif{wungf howdu{ }fu bn n{hònwtun x n{h{whgfud`tbnuidowd n kbn{d" }ud{downgf bf{ wunencf{ x }nuwhkh}ngf do db ntbn nkwhznidowd"{d }fgun ankdu bn idghn" {hdi}ud x ktnogf db nbtiof wtzhdun {fbnidowd ton !>(

dznbtnkho {t{}do{n kfo to ktnwuf !7( kfif iohif/

Bn dznbtnkho jhonb gdb nbtiongf ~td zn n bn }utden gd ctohf !kfo db igtbfkfi}bdwf( d{ bn ofwn fewdohgn do db dqnido ton zds n}bhkngf db udgfogdf ofuinb/

DQIDOD[ GD [D]WHDIEUD" KFOZFKNWFUHN DQWUNFUGHONUHN

]nun bn dznbtnkho gd {d}whdieud !wnowf gdb nbtiongf ~td anxn }dughgf gdudkaf nbn dznbtnkho kfowhotn kfif db ~td of atehdun {t}dungf bn{ dznbtnkhfod{wuhid{wunbd{( db nbtiongf ~td {d }ud{down n d{wn kfozfknwfuhn dqwunfughonuhn

udnbhsn ton }utden gdb igtbf }ufjd{hfonb kfi}bdwf" d{ gdkhu" gd wfgf{ bf{kfowdohgf{/ Of {d wdoguo do ktdown bn{ dznbtnkhfod{ ~td atehduno {t}dungf do {tgn oh bf{ wunencf{ }ud{downgf{ x znbfungf{/

Bn }utden dqwunfughonuhn gd {d}whdieud d{ {hihbnu n bn }uf}td{wn do bn kfozfknwfuhnfughonuhn }nun db nbtiongf ~td whdodo wfgn{ bn{ dznbtnkhfod{ {t{}do{n{"nwdoghdogf n bf{ kfowdohgf{ iohif{ gdb igtbf/

IDGHGN[ GD NWDOKHO NB NBTIONGF KFO ODKD[HGNGD[DGTKNWHZN[ D[]DKJHKN[

D{wd ktu{f kfownif{ do db ùt}f kfo to nbtiof kfo ghnò{whkf gd d{~thsfjudohn~td dzdowtnbidowd }fgun }ud{downu wun{wfuof{ ùnzd{ gd kfogtkwn" nto~td dbgd}nuwnidowf gd Fuhdownkho hojfuin ~td d{w kfowufbngf kfo idghknkho x of}nudkd }udzh{hebd ~td {tjun eufwd }{hkwhkf do bn nkwtnbhgng/ Dqh{wd to }ufwfkfbf gdnkwtnkho nowd to eufwd }{hkwhkf kfo{do{tngf dowud bf{ ihdieuf{ gdbgd}nuwnidowf gd Kfidukhf x db gd}nuwnidowf gd Fuhdownkho ~td kfo{h{wd do


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gd{nbfcnu bn kbn{d inowdohdogf nb nbtiof do ktd{who gdowuf gd dbbn x bbninutu`dowdidowd n {t ingud }nun ~td nktgn nb Kdowuf n ankdu{d knu`f gd b/

Wnieho kfownif{ do db ùt}f kfo to nbtiof ghnòf{whkngf gd WGNA/ ]nunnwdogdu bn{ odkd{hgngd{ gd d{wf{ nbtiof{" }fgudif{ nkwtnu gd bn{ {h`thdowd{

inodun{3

Ghjdudokhnogf bf{ dbdidowf{ d{dokhnbd{ f kfowdohgf{ e{hkf{ gd n~tdbbf{~td ni}bno f }ufjtoghsno bf d{dokhnb/

Fu`nohsnu bn{ wnudn{ gd idofu n inxfu ghjhktbwng" }nun ngn}wnuof{ n bn{kn}nkhgngd{ gd wfgf db nbtiongf/

Jnkhbhwnu db nkkd{f n bf{ kfowdohgf{ }nun {t wunencf jtdun gdb ntbn3 kfb`nubf{ inwduhnbd{ do to {hwhf pde f do fwuf dowfuof gh`hwnb dgtknwhzf/

Udnbhsnkho gd bn{ }ukwhkn{ jfuinogf ùt}f{ adwdufòdf{ x n{d`tunogfdb ud}nuwf gd bn{ wnudn{ x jtokhfod{ gd inodun jbdqhebd/

WDKOFBF@N[ GD BN HOJFUINKHO X KFITOHKNKHO

Howduodw {du ton hi}fuwnowd aduunihdown gd wunencf }nun db nbtiongf3 {duzhu nbùt}f gd jtdowd gd hojfuinkho }nun bn udnbhsnkho gd ghjdudowd{ }ukwhkn{ xwnieho }nun twhbhsnu aduunihdown{ fjhiwhkn{ x gd }ufgtkwhzhgng }du{fonb x}ufjd{hfonb" nbfcngn{ do bn oted/

[d anu ahokn}h do db ud{}dwf n bn{ bhkdokhn{ gd bn{ feun{ gh`hwnbd{ ncdon{ x do bnkfuudkkho n bn afun gd khwnu jtdowd{ gfktidownbd{ fewdohgn{ idghnowd e{~tdgn{do howduodw/

Ngdi{" {du judktdowd bn dbnefunkho }fu }nuwd gdb nbtiongf gd wfgf wh}f gd}ufgtkwf{ gh`hwnbd{ do db gd{nuufbbf gdb ktu{f/ [d jnzfudkdu db n}udoghsncdkfbnefunwhzf }uf}fohdogf }ufxdkwf{ nb nbtiongf" n udnbhsnu kfo bn{ aduunihdown{~td n {t dbdkkho ud{tbwdo i{ ngdktngn{" x {d jfidownu bn dq}bfunkho `thngn x}ufùd{hznidowd ntwofin gd bn{ ih{in{/ D{wf hi}bhkn ankdu ahokn}h wnowf do db}ufgtkwf jhonb fewdohgf kfif do db }ufkd{f gd dbnefunkho {d`thgf/

EHEBHF@UNJN

Bdx Fuòhkn >&>88=" gd ; gd fkwteud" gd Fugdonkho @dodunb gdb [h{wdinDgtknwhzf/

UG ;:5&5==7" gd 4 gd inusf" }fu db ~td {d d{wnebdkd bn fugdonkho `dodunb gd bnjfuinkho }ufjd{hfonb d{}dkjhkn/


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UG >:44&>887" }fu db ~td {d d{wnebdkd db Wwtbf gd Wkohkf do Kfidukhf x {t{kfuud{}foghdowd{ Do{dnosn{ Iohin{/

U/G/ >:0=&>887" gd 55 gd Ctbhf" }fu db ~td {d d{wnebdkd db Ktuuktbf gdb Khkbf/ Jduonogf Aduoogds x Ifow{duunw Zdowtun3 Bn fu`nohsnkho gdb ktuuhktbti

}fu }ufxdkwf{ gd wunencf/ Db kfofkhihdowf d{ to knbhgf{kf}hf !>884(/ Hohkhnwhznkfoctown gd bn HKD gd bn Tohzdu{hwnw gd Enukdbfon x Dghwfuhnb @UN gd [duzdh{]dgn``hk{" kfbdkkho Inwduhnbd{ }nun bn Hoofznkho Dgtknwhzn/

Etkl Ho{whwtwd jfu Dgtknwhfo3 ]EB D{{dowhnb Dbdidow{ Kadklbh{w/ppp/ehd/fu`"5=>>/

Cfao Bnuidu nog Cfao U/ Idu`dogfbbdu3 Wad Inho Kftu{d" Ofw Gd{{duw3 AfpNud [wtgdow{ Udnkaho` 5>{w Kdowtux @fnb{6 Phwa 5>{w Kdowtux ]ufcdkw En{dgBdnuoho`" Etkl Ho{whwtwd jfu Dgtknwhfo" 5=>=/

o`dbd{ Nun`ts3 ]ufxdkwf{ ifwhzngfud{3 kif gh{dnu }ufxdkwf{ ntwowhkf{ x{h`ohjhknwhzf{" }ud{downkho }nun dWphooho`3 ]ufxdkwf{ gd Kfbnefunkho

D{kfbnu do Dtuf}n/ Ih`tdb Znbduf)@nukn3 Bn{ ghjhktbwngd{ ~td whdod{ ktnogf ankd{ ]EB/ Gd}w/

Nu~thwdkwtun gd Kfi}twngfud{" D{ktdbn ]fbhwkohkn [t}duhfu gd Kn{wdbgdjdbb{"Tohzdu{hgng ]fbhwkohkn gd Knwnbtn/

[tshd Ef{{3 Afp wf wtuo xftu kbn{{uffi howf no hgdn jnkwfux/ ]tebhknkhodbdkwuohkn do Ebf`{/l~dg/fu`/

aww}3&&d{/phlh}dghn/fu`&phlh&Idwfgfbf`nVnkwhzn aww}3&&d{/phlh}dghn/fu`&phlh&N}udoghsncdVkff}dunwhzf aww}3&&d{/phlh}dghn/fu`&phlh&N}udoghsncdVen{ngfVdoV}ufebdin{ IFUNBD[" ]/ X BNOGN" Z/ !5==7(/ N}udoghsncd en{ngf do }ufebdin{" do

Wadfuhn" Zfb/>;/ ]`{/ >74)>40 Inwuhkd{ gd znbfunkho f ueuhkn{aww}3&&ppp/dgtwdln/fu`&InwuhsZnbfunkhfo/}a}; Gnzhg Nbbdo3 Fu`nosnwd kfo djhknkhn/ Iqhin }ufgtkwhzhgng }du{fonb {ho

d{wu{ !5=>>(/ Dghwfuhnb Di}ud{n nkwhzn" kfbdkkho Otdzf{ ]nungh`in{" >=

dghkho" Enukdbfon/ Bheuf gd kfo{tbwn udkfidogngf3 db d{wnebdkhgf }fu db Gd}nuwnidowf gd

Kfidukhf/ Dobnkd{ gd howdu{ ~td {d doktdowuno n {t gh{}f{hkho do db {hwhf pde gd bn

}ufjd{fun3aww}{3&&{hwd{/`ff`bd/kfi&{hwd&kkuh{wnokah&/
http://www.bie.org/http://www.bie.org/http://www.bie.org/http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodolog%C3%ADa_activahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodolog%C3%ADa_activahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_cooperativohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_cooperativohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_basado_en_problemashttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_basado_en_problemashttp://www.eduteka.org/MatrizValoracion.php3http://www.eduteka.org/MatrizValoracion.php3http://www.eduteka.org/MatrizValoracion.php3https://sites.google.com/site/ccristanchi/https://sites.google.com/site/ccristanchi/https://sites.google.com/site/ccristanchi/https://sites.google.com/site/ccristanchi/http://www.eduteka.org/MatrizValoracion.php3http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_basado_en_problemashttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje_cooperativohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodolog%C3%ADa_activahttp://www.bie.org/

Aplicaciones informáticas de propósito general

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