Third Edition

Technical Language 4

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Estudiantes de la Facultad de Ingeniera

Conscientes del vertiginoso avance de la globalizacin nos damos cuenta

de la necesidad de mantener una comunicacin adecuada en el

comercio, industria y mercadotecnia dentro de nuestra sociedad y

considerando el desarrollo de competencias adecuado, se ha construido

un novedoso programa para contribuir a que la Gloriosa Tricentenaria

Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala se mantenga con ese alto nivel

que la ha distinguido durante aos.

Este proyecto naci a principios del ao 2008 con el afn de lograr que

todo estudiante egresado de la Facultad de Ingeniera tenga

conocimiento de Ingls Tcnico para poder aplicarlo tanto en sus

estudios como en su desempeo profesional.

Demostrando que hoy y siempre SOMOS LOS LIDERES de la ingeniera

y pioneros en el cumplimiento de las necesidades de formacin de

nuestros profesionales, dedicamos este trabajo a todos aquellos

estudiantes a quienes les interese mejorar competentemente la

aplicacin de los procedimientos de ingeniera y tengan el deseo de

aprender nuevas tcnicas desarrollando habilidades que

constantemente expanden la efectividad y campos de aplicacin de

Ingeniera. Esta primera edicin de este folleto fue creado para cumplir

y llenar los requisitos del programa cuyo objetivo es contribuir a la

preparacin integral para llenar de los perfiles de los profesionales de

hoy.

Logrando el cambio propuesto.

ING. MURPHY OLIMPO PAIZ RECINOS

DECANO

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Students of Engineering School

Conscious of the vertiginous advance of the globalization we realize the

necessity to maintain an adapted communication in commerce, industry

and marketing research within our society and considering the

development of appropriated competences, we have developed a novel

program to contribute that the Glorious Tricentennial University of San

Carlos of Guatemala stays with that high level that has distinguished it

during years.

This project started the first semester 2008 with the eagerness to obtain

that all withdrawn students of the Faculty of Engineering have

knowledge of Technical English, becoming it a necessity that the

students apply this knowledge in their studies as in their professional

performance.

Demonstrating that today and always WE ARE LEADERS of engineering,

pioneers in the fulfilment of the necessities of formation of our

professionals, we present to all students who, by their competent

application of engineering procedures and their readiness to learn new

techniques and to develop skills that constantly expand the effectiveness

and fields of application of engineering. The First Edition of this booklet

was created to carry out and to fill the requirements of the program

which objective is to contribute to the integral preparation of the

students in order to fill the profiles of nowadays professionals.

Reaching goals through change

ENGR. MURPHY OLIMPO PAIZ RECINOS

DEAN

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Awareness / Acknowledgment

Information contained in this work has been obtained by

gathering information from sources believed to be reliable.

However, neither the sites or the authors guarantees the

accuracy or completeness of any information published

herein and neither the Technical Language Area not its

assistants shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or

damages arising out of use of this information. This work

is gathered with the understanding that the topics are

supplying information but are not attempting to render

engineering or other professional services. If such services

are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional

should be sought.

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Content

Preface ........................................................................................................................................ 13

Oral Presentations ............................................................................................................. 17

Preparation ................................................................................................................................ 17

Organizing the Content ........................................................................................................ 17

Delivering Your Presentation .............................................................................................. 18

Using Visual Aids..................................................................................................................... 20

Dealing with Nervousness ................................................................................................... 21

Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 22

Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 23

What is a project? .................................................................................................................. 23

Checking out the context .................................................................................................... 23

Researching the project ....................................................................................................... 23

Preparation And Working Out Of The Project Document ........................... 24

Composition of the Project Document ............................................................................ 25

Sections ...................................................................................................................................... 25

Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 29

Vocabulary of the Unit ...................................................................................................... 29

Business Administration .................................................................................................... 33

Administrative Functions ..................................................................................................... 33

Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 34

Leadership ................................................................................................................................. 35

Types of Leadership Styles ................................................................................................. 35

Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 37

Communication ........................................................................................................................ 37

Nonverbal Communication .................................................................................................. 39

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................. 40

Managerial Actions that Cause Workplace Conflicts ................................................. 40

Ways People Deal With Conflict ........................................................................................ 41

Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 41

Vocabulary ................................................................................................................................ 41

Classic Tools ........................................................................................................................... 45

Pie Charts .................................................................................................................................. 45

Bar Charts ................................................................................................................................. 45

Run Charts ................................................................................................................................ 46

Radar Charts............................................................................................................................. 46

Scatter Plots ............................................................................................................................. 47

Histograms ................................................................................................................................ 48

Pareto Charts ........................................................................................................................... 48

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Cause and Effect ..................................................................................................................... 49

Flowcharts ................................................................................................................................. 50

Control Charts .......................................................................................................................... 52

Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 53

Non-Classical Tools ............................................................................................................ 54

Benchmarking .......................................................................................................................... 54

Outsourcing .............................................................................................................................. 56

Strategic Alliances ................................................................................................................... 57

Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 58

Vocabulary ................................................................................................................................ 59

Strategic Planning .............................................................................................................. 63

Basic Approach to Strategic Planning ............................................................................. 63

The Vision .................................................................................................................................. 64

The Mission ............................................................................................................................... 65

The Values ................................................................................................................................. 66

The Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 67

The Strategies .......................................................................................................................... 67

SWOTs - Keys to Business Strategies .................................................................................. 67

The Goals ................................................................................................................................... 68

The Programs ........................................................................................................................... 69

Benefits of Strategic Planning ........................................................................................... 69

Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 69

Marketing Plan ....................................................................................................................... 70

Marketing Audit ....................................................................................................................... 72

Content of the Marketing Plan ........................................................................................... 73

Small business ...................................................................................................................... 73

Medium-sized and large organizations .......................................................................... 73

Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 76

Vocabulary ................................................................................................................................ 76

Safety and Health Programs ......................................................................................... 79

OSHA Standards ..................................................................................................................... 79

Hazard Control Measures .................................................................................................... 84

Common Hazards and Descriptions................................................................................. 86

International Standardization .................................................................................... 87

Understand the Basics .......................................................................................................... 88

Plan Do Check Act ...................................................................................................... 88

The ISO Standardization System ................................................................................... 89

Benefits of International Standards ................................................................................ 91

ISO 9000 Quality Management ......................................................................................... 92

ISO 9000 Principles ................................................................................................................. 92

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ISO 14000 Environmental Management Systems .................................................... 94

Other Popular Standards ..................................................................................................... 96

ISO 26000 Social Responsibility ............................................................................................ 96

ISO 50001 Energy Management ........................................................................................... 97

ISO 31000 Risk Management ................................................................................................ 98

ISO/IEC 27001 - Information Security Management ........................................................ 98

International Commerce Terminology ..................................................................... 99

Customs & Shipping Forms .............................................................................................. 102

Vocabulary .............................................................................................................................. 103

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Preface

The second edition of the Technical English Booklet was collected as a

guide to fulfill the objectives proposed in the restructuring of the

curriculum of the course. The new curriculum was developed during the

years of 2007 and 2008, with the guidance of the Coordinator of the Area

and the help of the assistants. Each of the assistants has a different

specialization in the field of engineering, so it helped to work in a

multidisciplinary environment.

After the first edition was finished, it was reviewed and authorized by the

Board of Directors of the Engineering School, now according to the needs

and skills required in this globalized world the topics have changed a little

bit but the essence of the program continues.

Again, it is advisable to make a revision in two years, and thanks to the

flexibility of the program, it will allow to make different changes in the

themes studied.

It has been interesting to look at the real applications this new curriculum

can lead. It wakes up the creativity, reasoning, and awareness of

development in different areas of engineering. It is done through problem

solving proposed in classes and developed in their field of work, enhancing

engineering techniques.

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Oral Presentations

Oral presentations are a richer medium than written documents. They

allow you to establish stronger contact with the audience and better convince

them of your viewpoint through verbal and nonverbal delivery, as well as the

ensuing interaction. Oral presentations have a price, however, in terms of the

audience's time. If you give a poor 15-minute presentation to an audience of 200

people, you have wasted the equivalent of 50 hours of work more than a week

of someone's work time. Preparing effective oral presentations, like writing

effective scientific papers, takes time, but it is time well invested.

Still, many oral presentations are ripe for improvement. Think of the last

large conference you attended. With typically three to four talks an hour, eight

hours a day over several days, such conferences can expose you to dozens of

presentations. What fraction of these delivered a message that was useful to you

(that is, how many of them did more than simply provide a great deal of

complicated information)? What fraction of the presentations did you find

fascinating (that is, how many got your undivided attention from the speaker's

first word to his or her last)? An effective oral presentation gets you to pay

attention, to understand, and to think or do things differently as a result of it.

This unit will help you prepare and deliver more effective oral presentations

in English. It will help you select and organize a presentation's content, create

slides (if appropriate), deliver the presentation, and answer audience questions.

Preparation

First of all,

Think about what you want to achieve; Inform? Inspire? Convince your

audience?

Think about your audience: do they know the topic? Do they have a

particular interest in the topic?

Research your topic and organize the content and material.

Prepare your visual aids

Rehearse your presentation taking care of the time.

Organizing the Content

Introduction (may be written last)

Capture your listeners attention: Begin with a question, a funny story, a

startling comment, or anything that will make them think.

State your purpose; for example:

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Im going to talk about...

This morning I want to explain

Present an outline of your talk; for example:

I will concentrate on the following points: First of allThen

This will lead to And finally

Body

Present your main points one by one in logical order.

Pause at the end of each point (give people time to take notes, or time to

think about what you are saying).

Make it absolutely clear when you move to another point. For example:

The next point is that ...

OK, now I am going to talk about ...

Right. Now I'd like to explain ...

Of course, we must not forget that ...

However, it's important to realize that...

Use clear examples to illustrate your points.

Use visual aids to make your presentation more interesting.

Conclusion

It is very important to leave your audience with a clear summary of

everything you have covered. It is also important not to let the talk just fizzle out.

Make it obvious that you have reached the end of the presentation.

Summarize the main points again, using phrases like:

To sum up...

So, in conclusion...

OK, to recap the main points

Restate the purpose of your talk, and say that you have achieved your aim:

I think you can now see that...

My intention was ..., and it should now be clear that ...

Thank the audience, and invite

questions:

Thank you. Are there any

questions?

Delivering Your Presentation

a) Be aware of how your audience is

reacting. Are they interested or

bored? If they look confused, ask

them why.

b) Stop if necessary and explain a

point again.

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c) Be open to questions. If someone raises a hand, or asks a question in the

middle of your talk, answer it. If you can't answer it, turn the question

back out to the audience and let someone else answer it!

d) Questions are good. They show that the audience is listening with interest.

They should not be regarded as an attack on you, but as a collaborative

search for deeper understanding.

e) Be ready to get the discussion going after your presentation. Just in case

nobody has anything to say, have some provocative questions or points for

discussion ready to ask the group.

f) Check if the audience is still with you. Does that make sense? Is that

clear?

g) Check the pronunciation of difficult, unusual, or foreign words beforehand.

h) Don't turn your back on the audience!

i) Emphasize the key pointsand make sure people realize which the key

points are.

j) Hold your head up. Look around and make eye-contact with people in the

audience. Do not just address the lecturer! Do not stare at a point on the

carpet or the wall. If you don't include the audience, they won't listen to

you.

k) Keep your language simple. The aim is to communicate, not to show off

your vocabulary.

l) Key words are important. Speak them out slowly and loudly.

m) Slow down for key points.

n) So use notes, cue cards or overheads as prompts, and speak to the

audience. Include everyone by looking at them and maintaining eye-

contact (but don't stare or glare at people).

o) Speak loudly enough for everyone in the room to hear you. This may feel

uncomfortably loud at first, but if people can't hear you, they won't listen.

p) Speak slowly and clearly. Dont rush! Speaking fast doesnt make you

seem smarter, it will only make it harder for other people to understand

you.

q) Stand straight and comfortably. Do not slouch or shuffle about.

r) Talk to your audience, don't read to them! A presentation is not the same

as an essay. If you read out your presentation as if it were an essay, your

audience will probably understand very little and will lose concentration

quickly.

s) Use pausesdon't be afraid of short periods of silence. (They give you a

chance to gather your thoughts, and your audience a chance to think.)

t) Vary your voice quality. If you always use the same volume and pitch (for

example, all loud, or all soft, or in a monotone) your audience will switch

off.

u) When you are talking to your friends, you naturally use your hands, your

facial expression, and your body to add to your communication. Do it in

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your presentation as well. It will make things far more interesting for the

audience.

v) When you begin a new point, use a higher pitch and volume.

Using Visual Aids

It is very helpful to use visual aids in your presentation, as it helps people

to understand. People learn visually as well as orally. Particularly if your accent is

different from your audience's accent, it can be very helpful to let them see your

keywords.

Overheads

Overheads are the easiest and most reliable form of visual aids. You can

use them as a prompt for your talk, so that you may not need cards. [But don't

read word-for-word from your overheads!]

Use bold typeface, and a minimum of size 16

font [Check that your overheads are readable by

placing them beside you on the floor and looking down

at them. Can you read them?]

Use no more than seven or eight main points on

an overhead [Overheads that have too many words on

them are no use at all]

Give your audience time to take notes from your

overhead

Make sure your audience can see the overhead screen [Where are you

standing? Is it directly in front of the screen?]

Using color, pictures and graphs can make your overheads more

interesting [But don't overcrowd your overheads with too much detail]

Presentations

You can use software to produce very

professional overheads, or to make a computer-

based presentation. Remember that presentations

may look great, but if the technology goes wrong you

may be very embarrassed. It's a good idea to print

out a handout, or have some overheads as a backup

just in case.

Sometimes students are tempted to spend more time on producing

graphics than on the actual talk. Rememberif your talk is poor, no amount of

fancy graphics will save it!

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Handouts

Handouts are a great idea. Think about whether you

want to distribute them before or after your presentation. It

is a good idea to include your references on a handout, so

that people can follow up on them later. You could also

include some follow-up questions for discussion.

Using the board

If possible, put your information on the

board before the talk begins, otherwise you will

have to turn your back on the audience and break

your eye contact with them, which is never a good

idea. Writing on a board is also time-consuming.

Use alternative visual aids wherever possible.

If you really must use a whiteboard, come

prepared with the right pens (use pens clearly marked 'Whiteboard Marker'

don't use anything else) and write in large neat writing, so that people can read it.

Checking out the facilities

Whenever possible, check the facilities of the room where you are going to deliver

your talk. Does the overhead processor work? How does it turn on and off? Where

is the plug for the computer? Is there a whiteboard, or is it a blackboard? If a

blackboard, is chalk provided?

Dealing with Nervousness

The first few times you make a presentation, you will be nervous. That's

quite a good thinga bit of adrenalin often helps you to perform well. However,

to make sure that your nervousness does not become a problem, here are some

things to consider:

Smile! Your audience will react warmly to

you if you smile and at least look relaxed.

Treat your audience like friends.

Confess that you are nervous! Your

audience will be very sympatheticthey

know how you are feeling.

Breathe deeply. It will calm you down

and help to control the slight shaking

that you might get in your hands and

your voice.

Be well-prepared. Practice giving your

talk

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Be organized. If you are well organized, your task will be easier. If your

overheads are out of order, or your notes are disorganized, you may get

flustered.

Slow down! When people are nervous, they tend to get confused easily. So

your mind may start to race, and you may feel panicky. Make use of

pauses: force yourself to stop at the end of a sentence, take a breath, and

think before you continue.

Giving an oral presentation is a performanceyou have to be like an actor.

If you act the part of someone enjoying themselves and feeling confident,

you will not only communicate these positive feelings to the audience, you

will feel much better, too.

Accomplished public speakers feel nervous before and even during a talk.

The skill comes in not communicating your nervousness, and in not letting it take

over from the presentation. Over time, you will feel less nervous, and well able to

control your nervousness.

Activity

A. Identify which points of Delivering your presentation belong to

Language skills: _________________________________________________________

Voice: ___________________________________________________________________

Body language: __________________________________________________________

Audience interaction: ____________________________________________________

B. Introduce yourself with a partner; indicate your name, engineering field,

interests, and other important issues about yourself.

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Projects

WHAT IS A PROJECT?

A project is a proposal prepared for yourself, for someone else, for a whole

community or even for a country. It involves making plans for the future and

describing them to others or to the community as a whole. At the start there is

nothing certain about a project except perhaps the desire or determination to

undertake it. Thus it is the attempt to define this which has led us to make the

various suggestions in this publication.

Identifying a project involves

recognizing a need in a certain place and

for a given group of people. A proper

understanding of the target group is very

important.

CHECKING OUT THE CONTEXT

Proper research is the prime

necessity for any project. If this is not

taken sufficiently seriously, the project

proposed is often ill-adapted to the

situation it is designed to. The result of this can be failure even though a large

amount of money may have been invested. Thus the study of the context of a

project is like laying the foundations of a house : the firmer they are, the more

solid and durable the house.

RESEARCHING THE PROJECT

The aim of this research is better to understand the field of operation of the

project and the people for whom the project is designed. The detailed planning of

the project then needs to be done in an intelligent way, which means not

disrupting local traditions, customs and structures. In instances where the need

has been clearly identified by the local population. It is nevertheless necessary to

try out the basic idea as a pilot scheme involving only a sample of the population.

This will test the relevance of the ideas which need to be developed in the process

of putting the project together.

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The length of time spent on research depends on the amount of time

needed getting to know the context of the project plus the time taken to do the

necessary detailed planning. Bearing in mind the fact that the context and the

needs are constantly changing, time must be allowed to ensure that the proposals

are free of misunderstandings and hasty judgments and that the project still

corresponds to the real needs of the people and has not been drawn up in a way

that causes the people for whom it was conceived not to be interested in it.

The work done during this first phase should give precise information

about local needs, customs and traditions, and on the political, social, cultural

and economic context. This information is essential and needs to be

systematically studied throughout the period of identification and planning.

NOTE : The initiators of the project should not forget that it may need also to

interest a funding organization. It is advisable therefore to try to relate as far as

possible the interests of the people with the criteria of the organizations from

which funding is sought.

Preparation And Working Out Of

The Project Document

Main criteria used by United Nations agencies.

In the previous part, we have seen that to identify a project is not enough

simply to have a good idea. It is vital that the idea corresponds realistically to the

needs of the local population. Once this

is clear, it must be certain that the

project fits into the social, economic,

cultural and political context and has a

good chance of being carried through (in

terms of finance, organization,

manpower and availability of equipment

and materials). When this task has been

completed, the project organizer will

than try to link the information obtained

with the original idea of the project. This may mean reformulating his or her ideas

before defining the project strategy. After this comes the process of preparing and

working out the project document.

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The conception and preparation of a project document that will be

submitted to a national or international funding organization should follow

certain guidelines without which it would have no hope of being considered. The

initiator of the project should realize that this document is his first real

introduction to the potential founders and forms the basis on which future

agreements will be made.

Care must be taken with the presentation and content of the document it

must respond to whatever questions the funding organization might ask before

deciding whether to accept the project or not. It is also particularly important that

the document is drawn up in a precise fashion, presenting clearly and concisely

in a logical order the details of the project and its proposed development.

COMPOSITION OF THE PROJECT DOCUMENT

A project document can be drawn up in the following sections:

General Introduction

Context and justification

Population targeted

Institutional framework

Methods and strategies

Development objective / overall aim

Immediate objective/s

Proposed strategy

Products

Activities planned

Work plan

Available resources; Aid requested; Budget

Available resources

Aid requested

Budget

Follow up, Report; Evaluation

Follow up

Report

Evaluation

SECTIONS Composition of the Title Page

The following should be featured clearly on this page :

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Title of the project

Project number (if you have submitted more than one project)

Field of activity

Location (city, region, country)

Tentative starting date and duration

Name(s) of organization(s)/group(s)/people carrying out the project

Name(s) of the funding organization(s) (if applicable)

Name(s) of the organizations associated with the project (if applicable)

An estimate of the total budget

Total amount of funding sought (indicate the currency)

Name of the organization submitting the project (or the name and title of

the person authorized to do so)

Date of submission.

Context of the project

This sub-section should explain in a few lines the project's context and the

environment in which it will be carried out. The information given should explain

The origin of the project (considering the social, economic, cultural,

political, historical and geographical conditions)

The problem which the project seeks to solve, or the main objective of the

project

The position of the organization proposing the project and of the local

authorities regarding this problem or situation

What previous steps have been taken and what has been their effect.

EXAMPLE 1:

A context presented by a CCIVS member organization for a project in

Bangladesh.

With a population of about one

billion, south Asian Countries are

mostly economically underdeveloped.

About 50% of these people live below

the poverty line and the same

percentage of them are illiterate.

There is a wide gap between overall

development needs and available

resources. There are many social

workers and volunteers in these

countries who are interested in local,

national and international

development. However, appropriate

training is not available since there

are no adequate training facilities in

the region. Due to these

circumstances, BWCA believes that

such a huge population of illiterate

and economically disadvantaged

people should be provided with a

training centre to promote their

education, cultural and socio-

economic development.

BWCA proposes to begin training

program's in the area to fill these

27

needs. With funding from UNESCO,

trainers can be provided, volunteers

will have the means to participate,

and training courses can be

developed

EXAMPLE 2:

Introduction used on Starting a Pilot Agricultural Centre for youth in Zaire

Project

The goal of this project is to help

disadvantaged youth to participate in

social and economic activities, to

fight against the drift from rural

areas which strips the land of its vital

forces.

In the region of Bas-Zaire where the

land is fertile and which could

become the granary of Kinshasa, the

present output is scarcely enough to

feed its inhabitants.

To change this situation, young

people need to be encouraged to stay

in the rural areas. The Regional

Council for Social Protection and

Family Planning wants to establish at

Nkondo Malembe an experimental

agricultural centre for youth.

The activities of this centre would

include orientation of young people

as well as agricultural production.

EXAMPLE 3:

The context of the previous project.

Nkondo Malembe is a village which is

a part of the Luima community in the

Songololo zone, the former training

and production centre of JMPR (the

youth movement of the ruling party).

It is a relatively hot region with clay

soil. Rainfall varies from 1200 to

1700 ml per year. It has two seasons:

dry and rainy.

Target community

Most projects are for the benefit of a certain defined population. A project

planner should therefore try concisely to determine who would benefit from the

project. This means taking into account certain criteria such as the composition

of the target community and its origin; the geographical area targeted; their main

activity (e.g. farming), age distribution and educational level.

This sub-section should also indicate to what extent the targeted

population supports the idea of the project; to what extent they are mobilized;

and which sections of the population are seen as a priority.

In the example in Zaire given above, it is evident that the population

targeted is the peasants from the southern part of the country and the criteria

28

used to determine this were the geographical region and the main activity of the

population.

The potential waste of human resources through early childbirth, drug

abuse cases resulting in psychiatric cases and other social vices among the youth

makes it imperative that actions are taken by NGO's and communities to curb

these unfortunate phenomena. These conditions tend negatively to affect the

physical and intellectual development of the adolescents into adulthood; thus a

vicious cycle of deprivation is created if this precarious situation is not addressed.

EXAMPLE 4:

A target population in a CCIVS project in Bolivia.

Another major benefit of this project

is women. In each community the

vast majority of teachers are women.

With the supply of the double-school

desks their job in educating young

children will be much easier. Easier

by enabling the students more

incentive to learn in comfortable but

will boost the morale of the students,

teachers and communities alike.

Previously teachers employed in rural

Bolivia were reluctant to finish their

term. They cited poor equipment as

major factor. With VEA's cooperation,

most are willing to stay and finish

their terms. The desks built by VEA

can also be used by the local

mothers' club and their daughters.

The institutional framework

The sub-section should give a clear outline of how the project is expected

to evolve, without going into minor details. You should include where the project

is taking place, staffing (national or international personnel, volunteers,

consultants etc.), sources of the funds and materials for the project, funding

organizations, organizations carrying out the project; other associated

organizations, co-ordination ties between these organizations, body or person in

charge of the project.

EXAMPLE 5:

Framework presented for Zaire project.

The proposed seminar to train social

workers to work in the X region will

take place at X from April 1 May

30, 1993. It will be organized by the

training staff of the Association for

the Children of Region X with

technical help from a consultant

from UNICEF. UNICEF and UNESCO

will be providing the fares for the 120

social workers.

The Association for the Children of

Region X will pay for food, lodging

and logistical aspects of the training

programmed. The Ministry of Youth

29

and Sports will be presiding over this

training seminar and has given a

grant to the national association.

ACTIVITY C. Answer the questions

What section could contain the following?: _______________________________

Nkondo Malembe is a village which is a part of the Luima community in the

Songololo zone, the former training and production centre of JMPR (the youth

movement of the ruling party). It is a relatively hot region with clay soil.

Rainfall varies from 1200 to 1700 ml per year. It has two seasons: dry and

rainy.

Where is the project proposed to be held?: ________________________________

D. Make groups of maximum 8 members and plan a project. The project

should be social outreach related to any of the branches of engineering. It

must be achievable and should not need outside help or funding sought.

Vocabulary of the Unit

Aim

Attempt

Budget

Disrupt

Environment

Evaluation

Feasibility

Fizzle out

Follow up

Foundations

Framework

Funding sought

Guidelines

Phase

Population

Population Targeted

Prime

Proposal

Report

Research

Scheme

Strategy

Submission

Submit

Survey

Undertake

References of the Unit

http://ccivs.org/New-SiteCCSVI/CcivsOther/Documents/Howtopresentaprojectfull.pdf

http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/oral

http://www.nature.com/scitable/ebooks/english-communication-for-scientists-

14053993/giving-oral-presentations-14239332

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Business Administration

In business, administration consists of the performance or management of

business operations and thus the making or implementing of major decisions.

Administration can be defined as the universal process of organizing people and

resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives.

ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS

Administrators, broadly speaking,

engage in a common set of functions to

meet the organization's goals. These

"functions" of the administrator were

described by Henri Fayol.

Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it,

and who should do it. It maps the path from where the organization is to

where it wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals and

arranging them in logical order. Administrators engage in both short-range

and long-range planning.

Organizing involves identifying responsibilities to be performed, grouping

responsibilities into departments or divisions, and specifying

organizational relationships. The purpose is to achieve coordinated effort

among all the elements in the organization. Organizing must take into

account delegation of authority and responsibility and span of control

within supervisory units.

Staffing means filling job positions with the right people at the right time.

It involves determining staffing needs, writing job descriptions, recruiting

and screening people to fill the positions.

Directing is leading people in a manner that achieves the goals of the

organization. This involves proper allocation of resources and providing an

effective support system. Directing requires exceptional interpersonal skills

and the ability to motivate people. One of the crucial issues in directing is

to find the correct balance between emphasis on staff needs and emphasis

on economic production.

Controlling is the function that evaluates quality in all areas and detects

potential or actual deviations from the organization's plan. This ensures

high-quality performance and satisfactory results while maintaining an

orderly and problem-free environment. Controlling includes information

management, measurement of performance, and institution of corrective

actions.

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Budgeting, exempted from the list above, incorporates most of the

administrative functions, beginning with the implementation of a budget

plan through the application of budget controls.

Management in business and human organization activity, in simple terms

means the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals.

Management comprises planning, organizing, resourcing, leading or directing,

and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or

effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the

deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources,

technological resources, and natural resources.

To accomplish in a successful way the management function two kind of

skills must be fulfilled:

Human skills

Financial skills

In human skills can be mentioned: the ability to communicate, leadership,

conflict management, decision taking etc.

In Financial skills: the management tools, benchmarking, outsourcing, six

sigma and more.

ACTIVITY A. According to the managerial skills for a good administrator, write an ideal

manager profile.

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Leadership

The word leadership can refer to:

1. Those entities that perform one

or more acts of leading.

2. The ability to affect human

behavior so as to accomplish a

mission.

3. Influencing a group of people to

move towards its goal setting or goal

achievement.

TYPES OF LEADERSHIP STYLES

The bureaucratic leader (Weber, 1905) is very structured and follows the

procedures as they have been established. This type of leadership has no space to

explore new ways to solve problems and is usually slow paced to ensure

adherence to the ladders stated by the company. Leaders ensure that all the

steps have been followed prior to sending it to the next level of authority.

Universities, hospitals, banks and government usually require this type of leader

in their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decrease

corruption. Leaders that try to speed up the process will experience frustration

and anxiety.

The charismatic leader (Weber, 1905) leads by infusing energy and

eagerness into their team members. This type of leader has to be committed to

the organization for the long run. If the success of the division or project is

attributed to the leader and not the team, charismatic leaders may become a risk

for the company by deciding to resign for advanced opportunities. It takes the

company time and hard work to gain the employees' confidence back with other

type of leadership after they have committed themselves to the magnetism of a

charismatic leader.

The autocratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) is given the power to

make decisions alone, having total authority. This leadership style is good for

employees that need close supervision to perform certain tasks. Creative

employees and team players resent this type of leadership, since they are unable

to enhance processes or decision making, resulting in job dissatisfaction.

The democratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) listens to the team's

ideas and studies them, but will make the final decision. Team players contribute

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to the final decision thus increasing employee satisfaction and ownership, feeling

their input was considered when the final decision was taken. When changes

arises, this type of leadership helps the team assimilate the changes better and

more rapidly than other styles, knowing they were consulted and contributed to

the decision making process, minimizing resistance and intolerance. A

shortcoming of this leadership style is that it has difficulty when decisions are

needed in a short period of time or at the moment.

The laissez-faire ("let do") leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) gives no

continuous feedback or supervision because the employees are highly

experienced and need little supervision to obtain the expected outcome. On the

other hand, this type of style is also associated with leaders that dont lead at all,

failing in supervising team members, resulting in lack of control and higher costs,

bad service or failure to meet deadlines.

The people-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) is the one that, in order to

comply with effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains and develops his

personnel, increasing job satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good job.

The task-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) focus on the job, and concentrate on the

specific tasks assigned to each employee to reach goal accomplishment. This

leadership style suffers the same motivation issues as autocratic leadership,

showing no involvement in the teams needs. It requires close supervision and

control to achieve expected results.

The servant leader (Greenleaf, 1977) facilitates goal accomplishment by

giving its team members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is

an instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than an commanding voice

that moves to change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic

leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time frame than other styles,

although employee engagement is higher.

The transaction leader (Burns, 1978) is given power to perform certain

tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance. It gives the opportunity

to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to

accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given

to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not

up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is

reached.

The transformation leader (Burns, 1978) motivates its team to be effective

and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group

in the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and

uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on

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the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details.

The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the

companys vision.

The environment leader ( Carmazzi, 2005) is the one who nurtures group

or organizational environment to affect the emotional and psychological

perception of an individuals place in that group or organization. An

understanding and application of group psychology and dynamics is essential for

this style to be effective. The leader uses organizational culture to inspire

individuals and develop leaders at all levels. This leadership style relies on

creating an education matrix where groups interactively learn the fundamental

psychology of group dynamics and culture from each other. The leader uses this

psychology, and complementary language, to influence direction through the

members of the inspired group to do what is required for the benefit of all.

"Leadership is the energetic process of getting people fully and willingly

committed to a new and sustainable course of action, to meet commonly

agreed objectives whilst having commonly held values"

ACTIVITY B. At home, access to the following link and complete the test for identifying

your leadership style, later print the snapshot provided by the page and

write an analysis of the result. If the link doesnt work try to search the

test Leadership Style on the queendom principal page.

http://www.queendom.com/tests/access_page/index.htm?idRegTest=2289

C. Write a paragraph about a person that you consider a leader in your

school, your community or even in the world. Describe his/her qualities

and identify which style of leadership he/she has.

Communication

Communication is the process of transferring information from a sender to

a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is

understood by both sender and receiver. It requires that all parties understand a

common language that is exchanged; there are auditory means, such as

speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means,

38

such as body language, sign language,

paralanguage, touch, eye contact, or the use

of writing.

Communication is also defined as a

process by which we assign and convey

meaning in an attempt to create shared

understanding. This process requires a vast

repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and

interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing,

and evaluating. Use of these processes is developmental and transfers to all areas

of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It is through communication

that collaboration and cooperation occur. Communication is the articulation of

sending a message, through different media whether it be verbal or nonverbal, so

long as a being transmits a thought provoking idea, gesture, action, etc.

Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in

many different ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if

not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when

speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects

of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range

widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well

as human beings, and some are more narrow, only including human beings

within the parameters of human symbolic interaction.

Nonetheless, communication is usually described along a few major

dimensions: Content (what type of things are communicated), source, emisor,

sender or encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which

medium), destination, receiver, target or decoder (to whom), and the purpose or

pragmatic aspect. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer

knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These

acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The

form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together,

communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a

destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity

(such as a corporation or group of beings).

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In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a message in natural

language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/

encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. In a slightly more complex form a

sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. A particular instance of

communication is called a speech act. In the presence of "communication noise"

on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content

may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One

problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of

encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess

something that functions as a code book, and that these two code books are, at

the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is

implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates

many conceptual difficulties.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through

sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated

through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact,

object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or

symbols and infographics. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known

as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as

prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts

have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of

words, or the use of emoticons. A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or

emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to

convey emotional content in written or message form.

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CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable

conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievances

standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider

to be wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule,

lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law,

mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict

management will be used in any given situation can

be somewhat predicted and explained by the social

structure or social geometry of the case.

Conflict management is often considered to be

distinct from conflict resolution. The latter refers to

resolving the dispute to the approval of one or both

parties, whereas the former concerns an ongoing

process that may never have a resolution. Neither is it considered the same as

conflict transformation, which seeks to reframe the positions of the conflict

parties.

MANAGERIAL ACTIONS THAT CAUSE WORKPLACE CONFLICTS

1. Poor communications

a. Employees experience continuing surprises, they aren't informed of

new decisions, programs, etc.

b. Employees don't understand reasons for decisions, they aren't

involved in decision-making.

c. As a result, employees trust the "rumor mill" more than

management.

2. The alignment or the amount of resources is insufficient. There is:

a. Disagreement about "who does what".

b. Stress from working with inadequate resources.

3. "Personal chemistry", including conflicting values or actions among

managers and employees, for example:

a. Strong personal natures don't match.

b. We often don't like in others what we don't like in ourselves.

4. Leadership problems, including inconsistent, missing, too-strong or

uninformed leadership (at any level in the organization), evidenced by:

a. Avoiding conflict, "passing the buck" with little follow-through on

decisions.

b. Employees see the same continued issues in the workplace.

c. Supervisors don't understand the jobs of their subordinates

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WAYS PEOPLE DEAL WITH CONFLICT

There is no one best way to deal with conflict. It depends on the current

situation. Here are the major ways that people use to deal with conflict.

1. Avoid it. Pretend it is not there or ignore it.

Use it when it simply is not worth the effort to argue. Usually this

approach tends to worsen the conflict over time.

2. Accommodate it. Give in to others, sometimes to the extent that you

compromise yourself.

Use this approach very sparingly and infrequently, for example, in

situations when you know that you will have another more useful

approach in the very near future. Usually this approach tends to worsen

the conflict over time, and causes conflicts within yourself.

3. Competing. Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing

the issue. Competitors love accommodators.

Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position.

4. Compromising. Mutual give-and-take.

Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on.

5. Collaborating. Focus on working together.

Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using

mutual resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs.

Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment.

ACTIVITY D. Role play the solution of a conflict. Analyze the result.

Vocabulary

Affiliates

Contract

Equity

Intermediary

Organization

Negotiation

Partnering

Protg

Small Business

References of the Unit

http://1stopconflict.blogspot.com/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(business)

http://www.academia.edu/474807/Types_of_Leadership_styles

http://www.knowthis.com/promotion-decisions/the-communication-process

http://www.mediaworks.pro/communication.html

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Classic Tools

There's an elusive balance between chasing after each new management

tool or method, and ignoring the fact that we have actually learned some things

about management over the past 100,000 years. The best tools are those which

stand the test of time, and which give you a lot of leverage over common

problems.

These tools are basic graphs and statistics. What to look for?

Mean The average of all the data points in the series

Maximum The maximum value in the series

Minimun The minimum value in the series

Sample Size The number of values in the series

Range The maximum value minus the minimum value

Standard Deviation Indicates how widely data is spread around the mean

PIE CHARTS

They are used to show classes or groups

of data in proportion to the whole data set. The

entire pie represents all the data, while each

slice represents a different class or group

within the whole.

BAR CHARTS

Bar Charts, like pie charts,

are useful for comparing classes or

groups of data. In bar charts, a

class or group can have a single

category of data, or they can be

broken down further into multiple

categories for greater depth of

analysis.

Watch out for inconsistent

scales. If you're comparing

two or more charts, be sure

they use the same scale. If

they don't have the same

46

scale, be aware of the differences and how they might trick your eye.

Be sure that all your classes are equal. For example, don't mix weeks and

months, years and half-years, or newly-invented categories with ones that

have trails of data behind them.

Be sure that the interval between classes is consistent. For example, if you

want to compare current data that goes month by month to older data that

is only available for every six months, either use current data for every six

months or show the older data with blanks for the missing months.

RUN CHARTS

Run charts (often known as line graphs outside the quality management

field) display process performance over time. Upward and downward trends,

cycles, and large aberrations may be spotted and investigated further. In a run

chart, events, shown on the y axis, are graphed against a time period on

the x axis. For example, a run chart in a hospital might plot the number of

patient transfer delays against the time of day or day of the week. The results

might show that there are more delays at noon than at 3 p.m. Investigating this

phenomenon could unearth potential for improvement. Run charts can also be

used to track improvements that have been put into place, checking to determine

their success. Also, an average line

can be added to a run chart to

clarify movement of the data away

from the average.

Alternatives with run charts:

An average line, representing

the average of all the y

values recorded, can easily

be added to a run chart to

clarify movement of the data

away from the average. An average line runs parallel to the x axis.

Several variables may be tracked on a single chart, with each variable

having its own line. The chart is then called a multiple run chart.

RADAR CHARTS Radar charts are useful when you want to look at several different factors

all related to one item. Radar charts have multiple axes along which data can be

plotted.

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In a radar chart, a point close

to the center on any axis indicates a

low value. A point near the edge is a

high value. When you're interpreting a

radar chart, check each axis as well as

the overall shape to see how well it fits

your goals.

SCATTER PLOTS

Scatter Plots (also called scatter diagrams) are used to investigate the

possible relationship between two variables that both relate to the same "event." A

straight line of best fit (using the least squares method) is often included.

Things to look for:

If the points cluster in a band running from lower left to upper right, there

is a positive correlation (if x increases, y increases).

If the points cluster in a band

from upper left to lower right,

there is a negative correlation (if

x increases, y decreases).

Imagine drawing a straight line

or curve through the data so

that it "fits" as well as possible.

The more the points cluster

closely around the imaginary

line of best fit, the stronger the

relationship that exists between

the two variables.

If it is hard to see where you would draw a line, and if the points show no

significant clustering, there is probably no correlation.

There is a maxim in statistics that says, "Correlation does not imply

causality." In other words, your scatter plot may show that a relationship exists,

but it does not and cannot prove that one variable is causing the other. There

could be a third factor involved which is causing both, some other systemic

cause, or the apparent relationship could just be a fluke. Nevertheless, the

scatter plot can give you a clue that two things might be related, and if so, how

they move together.

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HISTOGRAMS

A histogram is a specialized type of bar chart. Individual data points are

grouped together in classes, so that you can get an idea of how frequently data in

each class occur in the data set. High bars indicate more points in a class, and

low bars indicate fewer points.

The strength of a histogram is that it provides an easy-to-read picture of

the location and variation in a data set. There are, however, two weaknesses of

histograms that you should bear in mind:

The first is that

histograms can be

manipulated to show

different pictures. If too

few or too many bars are

used, the histogram can

be misleading. This is an

area which requires some

judgment, and perhaps

some experimentation,

based on the analyst's

experience.

Histograms can also obscure the time differences among data sets. For

example, if you looked at data for #births/day in the United States in

1996, you would miss any seasonal variations, e.g. peaks around the times

of full moons. Likewise, in quality control, a histogram of a process run

tells only one part of a long story. There is a need to keep reviewing the

histograms and control charts for consecutive process runs over an

extended time to gain useful knowledge about a process.

PARETO CHARTS

Vilfredo Pareto, a turn-of-the-century Italian economist, studied the

distributions of wealth in different countries, concluding that a fairly consistent

minority about 20% of people controlled the large majority about 80% of a

society's wealth. This same distribution has been observed in other areas and has

been termed the Pareto effect.

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The Pareto effect even operates in quality improvement: 80% of problems

usually stem from 20% of the causes. Pareto charts are used to display the Pareto

principle in action, arranging data

so that the few vital factors that

are causing most of the problems

reveal themselves. Concentrating

improvement efforts on these few

will have a greater impact and be

more cost-effective than

undirected efforts.

Things to look for:

In most cases, two or three

categories will tower above the

others. These few categories which account for the bulk of the problem will

be the high-impact points on which to focus. If in doubt, follow these

guidelines:

Look for a break point in the cumulative percentage line. This point occurs

where the slope of the line begins to flatten out. The factors under the

steepest part of the curve are the most important.

If there is not a fairly clear change in the slope of the line, look for the

factors that make up at least 60% of the problem. You can always improve

these few, redo the Pareto analysis, and discover the factors that have

risen to the top now that the biggest ones have been improved.

If the bars are all similar sizes or more than half of the categories are

needed to make up the needed 60%, try a different breakdown of categories

that might be more appropriate.

CAUSE AND EFFECT

The cause & effect diagram is the brainchild of Kaoru Ishikawa, who

pioneered quality management processes in the Kawasaki shipyards, and in the

process became one of the founding fathers of modern management; that is the

reason for calling these diagrams Ishikawa Diagram.

The cause and effect diagram is used to explore all the potential or real

causes (or inputs) that result in a single effect (or output). Causes are arranged

according to their level of importance or detail, resulting in a depiction of

relationships and hierarchy of events. This can help you search for root causes,

identify areas where there may be problems, and compare the relative importance

of different causes.

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Causes in a cause & effect diagram are frequently arranged into four major

categories. While these categories can be anything, you will often see:

manpower, methods, materials, and machinery (recommended for

manufacturing)

equipment, policies, procedures, and people (recommended for

administration and service).

These guidelines can be helpful but should not be used if they limit the

diagram or are inappropriate. The categories you use should suit your needs.

The C&E diagram is also known as the fishbone diagram because it was

drawn to resemble the skeleton of a fish, with the main causal categories drawn

as "bones" attached to the spine of the fish, as shown below.

FLOWCHARTS

Flowcharts are maps or graphical representations of a process. Steps in a

process are shown with symbolic shapes, and the flow of the process is indicated

with arrows connecting the symbols. Computer programmers popularized

flowcharts in the 1960's, using them to map the logic of programs. In quality

improvement work, flowcharts are particularly useful for displaying how a

process currently functions or could ideally function. Flowcharts can help you see

whether the steps of a process are logical, uncover problems or

miscommunications, define the boundaries of a process, and develop a common

base of knowledge about a process. Flowcharting a process often brings to light

redundancies, delays, dead ends, and indirect paths that would otherwise remain

unnoticed or ignored. But flowcharts don't work if they aren't accurate, if team

members are afraid to describe what actually happens, or if the team is too far

removed from the actual workings of the process.

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There are many varieties of flowcharts and scores of symbols that you can

use. Experience has shown that there are three main types that work for almost

all situations:

High-level flowcharts map only the major steps in a process for a good overview.

Detailed flowcharts show a step-by-step mapping of all events and decisions in a

process.

Deployment flowcharts which organize the flowchart by columns, with each

column representing a person or department involved in a process.

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The trouble spots in a process usually begin to appear as a team

constructs a detailed flowchart.

Although there are many symbols that can be used in flowcharts to

represent different kinds of steps, accurate flowcharts can be created using very

few (e.g. oval, rectangle, diamond, delay, cloud).

To construct an effective flowchart:

Define the process boundaries with starting and ending points.

Complete the big picture before filling in the details.

Clearly define each step in the process. Be accurate and honest.

Identify time lags and non-value-adding steps.

Circulate the flowchart to other people involved in the process to get their

comments.

Flowcharts don't work if they're not accurate or if the team is too far

removed from the process itself. Team members should be true participants in

the process and feel free to describe what really happens. A thorough flowchart

should provide a clear view of how a process works. With a completed flowchart,

you can:

Identify time lags and non-value-adding steps.

Identify responsibility for each step.

Brainstorm for problems in the process.

Determine major and minor inputs into the process with a cause & effect

diagram.

Choose the most likely trouble spots with the consensus builder.

CONTROL CHARTS This are sometimes called

Shewhart charts because of its

inventor, Walter Shewhart, of Bell

Labs. There are many different

subspecies of control charts which

can be applied to the different types

of process data which are typically

available.

All control charts have three basic components:

A centerline, usually the mathematical average of all the samples plotted.

Upper and lower statistical control limits that define the constraints of

common cause variations.

Performance data plotted over time.

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ACTIVITY You are employed by a mid-sized human service agency which employs 75 people.

The agency has a central fax machine. For some time now, clinical staff have

complained that they have not received fax messages in a timely manner.

Because of the confidential nature of some of the fax messages, the agency has

developed a three step procedure for handling fax messages. The fax clerk is the

only person who can retrieve fax messages from the machine. The clerk seals the

message in an envelope and delivers it to the mail room. The mail room places all

fax messages in a "safe box" where they are picked up by the mail delivery person

who delivers them to the secretary for each unit. The secretary opens the

envelope and determines whether the fax contains confidential information. If

not, the secretary places the fax message in the staff person's in box. If the

message contains confidential information, the secretary forwards it directly to

the clinical staff person for whom the message was intended. The goal is to design

the system so that the correct person receives the fax message within one hour.

54

Non-Classical Tools

There are any new tools for helping management, they have changed

during the years but the basis continues here Improve quality, get more profits

and compete in this globalized world.

Benchmarking, Balanced Scorecard, Outsourcing and Strategic Planning

have remain in the top ten of management tools. Besides these there are many

more in the list, but now well focus on them.

BENCHMARKING

Improving by learning from others i.e. - benchmarking is simple about

making comparisons with other organizations and then learning the lessons that

those comparisons throw up

Benchmarking is the continuous process of measuring products, services

and practices against the toughest competitors of those companies recognized as

industry leaders. Operational processes must be comparative or analogous if the

highest degree of knowledge transfer between benchmarking partners is to be

achieved.

The underlying reason for benchmarking is to learn how to improve your

business processes and thereby increases your competitiveness. Although

benchmarking is a measurement process and does generate comparative

performance measures, it also is an operational process involving continuous

learning and adaptation which enables you to improve your organizations

competitive position.

In practice benchmarking usually encompasses:

Regularly comparing aspects of performance (functions or processes) with

others

Identifying gaps in performance

Developing performance improvements to close the gaps thus identified

Implementing the improvements

Monitoring processes

Reviewing the benefits

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Types of Benchmarking

Strategic Benchmarking involves examining long-term strategies, for

example regarding core competencies, new product and service

development or improving capabilities for dealing with change. This type of

benchmarking is used by successful high performers in order to improve a

businesss overall performance.

Performance Benchmarking (or Competitive Benchmarking) looks at

performance characteristics in relation to key products and services in the

same sector. In order to protect confidentiality this type of analysis is often

undertaken through trade associations or third parties.

Process Benchmarking focuses on improving critical processes and

operations through comparison with best practice organizations

performing similar work. This often results in short term benefits.

Functional Benchmarking compares a business with partners drawn

from different sectors to find innovative ways of improving work processes.

This can lead to dramatic improvements.

Internal Benchmarking involves benchmarking businesses or operations

from within the same organization (e.g. business units in different

countries). Access to sensitive and/or standardized data is easier, usually

less time and resources are needed and ultimately practices may be

relatively easier to implement. However, real innovation may be lacking:

best in class performance is more likely to be found through external

benchmarking.

External Benchmarking analyses best in class outside organizations,

providing the opportunity to learn from those at the leading edge. This can

take up significant time and resource to ensure the credibility of the

findings.

International Benchmarking identifies and analyses best practitioners

elsewhere in the world, perhaps because there are too few benchmarking

partners within the same country to produce valid results. Globalisation

and advances in information technology are increasing opportunities for

international projects. However, these can take more time and resources to

set up and implement and the results may need careful analysis due to

national differences.

Key Issues:

Key issues for organizations beginning benchmarking efforts:

Top management commitment and participation are necessary

Sufficient time must be allowed for the project as it takes time

An able, well-trained team is critical (if not outside help, consultants)

It is heavy on resources, people, travel, research, consultants, and other

factors

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Process rigor is an absolute sine qua non for success you cannot graze

the surface

Quantitative data is often difficult and time consuming to obtain

OUTSOURCING

It is a transfer of control. Delegate one or more process to a specialize

supplier to reach a high efficiency. With the outsourcing, companies can look at

other necessities to fulfill their mission.

The principal reasons for outsourcing are listed below:

Cost savings. The lowering of the overall cost of the service to the

business. This will involve reducing the scope, defining quality levels, re-

pricing, re-negotiation, const re-structuring.

Cost restructuring. Operating leverage is a measure that compares fixed

costs to variable costs.

Improve quality. Achieve a step change in quality through contracting out

the service with a new Service Level Agreement.

Knowledge. Access to intellectual property and wider experienced and

knowledge.

Contract. Services will be provided to a legally binding contract with

financial penalties and legal redress.

Operational expertise. Access to operational best practice

Staffing issues. Access to a larger talent pool and a sustainable source of

skills.

Capacity management

Catalyst for change. The outsourcer becomes a Change agent in the

process.

Reduce time to market.

Risk management. Partner with an outsourcer who is better able to

provide the mitigation.

Time zone. A sequential task can be done during normal day shift in

different time zones- to make it available 24x7.

Customer pressure. When customers are not happy with the performance

of certain elements of the business.

Process of Outsourcing

Deciding to outsource: Identify what is to be outsource

Supplier proposals: Have a list with the suppliers and their proposals.

Supplier competition: Look for the best supplier

Negotiation: Is the agreement between the company and the supplier.

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Transition: Process for the staff transfer and the take- on of the service

Transformation: Is the implement of the new service.

Termination or renewal: Is the decision between terminate of renew the

contract.

Risks Of The Outsourcing

Negotiate with a wrong contract

Inadequate supplier

Increase the dependence in external entities

There is no control on the suppliers staff

STRATEGIC ALLIANCES

An alliance is defined as a relationship between two or more firms, or

individuals, involving the sharing of complimentary disciplines, technology,

products, services, organizational structures, marketing, and financial resources.

It is a formal relationship formed between two or more parties to pursue a set of

agreed upon goals or to meet a critical business need while remaining

independent organizations.

Partners may provide the strategic alliance with resources such as

products, distribution channels, manufacturing capability, project funding,

capital equipment, knowledge, expertise, or intellectual property.

The alliance is cooperation or collaboration which aims for a synergy where

each partner hopes that the benefits from the alliance will be greater than those

from individual efforts. It often involves technology transfer (access to knowledge

and expertise), economic specialization, shared expenses and share risk.

It is necessary to follow some steps for creating a strong alliance, these

steps are:

Strategy Development: It invol