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Functions of light

What is the purp ose of l ight ing?

1. Composition: The creation of a series of inter-related images which assists the

director in presenting his interpretation of the play.

2. Visibility: The responsibility of the designer to provide enough light for theaudience to see the performer.

3. Modeling: The use of high light and shadow to reveal the three dimensional

form of the performer.

4. Focus: The designer's use of contrast to focus the audience's attention.

5. Information: The use of light to establish the time of day, the season, and thelocation of the play's action.

6. Mood: The reflection of the ever changing emotional content of the play. It is,

in a way, very close to the style of production.

What are the co ntrol lable propert ies, or qual i t ies, of l igh t?

1. Intensity:The amount of light reflected by the performer and the background.

Factors determining the intensity of the light:

2. Type of instrument3. Wattage of the lamp

4. Length of throw5. Size of the pool of light6. Color of the gel

7. Amount of electricity reaching the lamp (dimmer level)

8. Reflective quality of the make-up, costume and setting

9. Color:The color of the light reflected by the performer and the background.

Factors determining the color of the light:

10.Color of the gel11.Color temperature of the lamp

12.Intensity of the lamp (dimmer level)

13.Color of the costume, make-up and setting

14.Direction:The direction (or angle) of the light determines the length and

location of the shadows cast by the performer and the three dimensional props

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Logo and Organization Name X.X

Manual Title Date 3

around him.Factor determining the direction of the light:Where the

instrument is placed.

15.Distribution:The distribution of light determines which part (or parts) of thestage will be lit.Factors determining the distribution of the light:

16.Where the light is focused

17.The type of light

18.The focus (spot or flood) of the light19.The use of "masking" devices: shutters, barn doors, and top hats

20.The direction (angle) of the light

21.Texture:Texture is the quality of the light-- its diffusion or clarity. Does it

have a soft edge or is it hard edged? Is the field of the light smooth, diffuse, or

is it heavily textured?Factors determining the texture of the light:

22.The type of light23.The use of diffusion gel

24.The use of a gobo

25.Movement:Movement is any changein the intensity, color, direction,distribution, or texture of the light. Such a change is a light cue.

3. What is the relationship between the functions and the

properties of light?

1. Compositionis the end product of the lighting design

and is influenced more by the otherfunctionsthan by the

controllable propertiesof light.

2. Visibilityis determined by the intensity, color, anddirectionof the light.

3. Focusis determined by the intensityand distributionof

the light.

4. Modelingis determined by the directionof the light.

5. Informationis presented by the intensity(Day is bright

and night is dark), color(Day is pale yellow and night is

dark blue) and direction(Sun light rises stage left and

sets stage right) of the light.6. Mood, or toneorstyle, is determined by the intensity

(Comedies are bright), color(Tragedies are cool),

direction(Comedies have few shadows) and distribution

(Tragedies are played in "pools of light") of the light.

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Lighting tools

Light measurement

Studio lighting

Stage lighting

Introduction

Theatrical space

Performance facility or venueThe theatre.

Housewhere the audience is seated.

Main curtainprevents the audience from viewing the stage. Immediately behind

the proscenium.

ProsceniumArea surrounding the stage opening. Procesnium arch is this rea up

to the roof.

Plaster linebackside of proscenium arch, concealed from audiences view.

Centerlineline dividing the center of the stage.

Apronrea between plaster line and edge of the stage.

Orchestra pittrench between edge of stage and audience.

Playing rearea not conceiled by masking and available for performers.

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Manual Title Date 5

Backstageall that is not playing rea.

Downstagemoving towards audience.

Upstagemoving away from audience.

Stage left and stage right from back of the stage looking towards the audience.

Onstage and offstage movementmoving towards the centerline is onstage,

moving away is offstage.

Center-centercenterline midway downstage and upstage.

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Theatr ical backdrops

GoodsNon-electrical objects hung in the air above the stage. Backdrops,

curtains and velour masking are soft godos. Walls and other framed solid objectsare hard godos.

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Manual Title Date 7

Large pieces of fabric that prevent the audience from viewing the back of the

theatre are known as backdrops. Several drops adjacent to each other upstage are

referred to as the scenic stack.

Backdrops usually try to look solid and without wrinkles. Toa chieve this most

fabric drops have a sleve sewn across the botton, known as a pipe pocket. Weightsinside provide tensin. Clamps, called stretchersmay be attached to either side to

provide horizontal tensin.

If they have no visual design, they can be lit with color washes. These drops are

usually referred to as cicloramasor cycs.

Theatr ical masking

Technical elements are usually hidden with large pieces of fabrico r built flagss.This is called masking. Black velour reflects the least ammount of light. If

unframed, the masking is soft. Vertical masking placed on either side of the stageis called legs or tormentors. Horizonal masking hung above the stage are calledborders or teasers.

Legs and borders hung next to each other crate masking portals.

Hanging posi t ion and focus nom enclature

Each hanging positionlocations specifically designed to house lighting

instrumentshas a unique name defined by the location, type of mounting

position and location relative to groundplan zero.

Initial point is the plaster line. Downstage of the plaster line they are known asFrom of House (FOH). They are usually found in three locations: parallel to

plaster line over the audience (cove, catwalk, beam or slot) and sides of the

audience (box booms). The flattest angle is usually in the balcony closests tostage, this is the balcony rail.

Hanging positions upstage of the plaster line above the stage may be known aselectrics, overhead pipes or catwalks. Also overhead bridges. The farther away

from the plaster line the higher the position number.

Hanging positions on either side of the stage are identified by their degree orpermanence, appearance and function.

Permanent: galleries.

Temporary suspensions from the grid: ladders.

PErmanent vertical hanging into or next to proscenium: torms

Temporary structures on teh stage providing vertical positions: booms

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Individual movables lights on stage: stands, rovers or floor mounts.

Attached to pieces of scenery: set mounts

Deck, creating a gap in the stage: troughs

Focus and funct ion nom enclature

Beam spread: the overall size of the light beam. MEasured in degrees. Itsbroken in three reas. Field angle is the outer cone. Middle half of the beamis the beam angle. The hot spot is the center.

Focus points:place on stage or space where the light is aiming.

Actual throw distance:distance between the instruments bulb and the

focus point.

Special:when a single instrument is focused to either a specific locaiton orpurpose.

System:multiple instruments used together. At least two instruments

focused on adjacent stage reas. Wash:when multiple instruments of matching color are focused so that

their overlapping beams crate a consistent hue and intensity over a portionora ll of a performance rea.

System Direct ion Nom enclature and A nalysis

Area light or performer light: primary system of light constructed toilluminate the performers. They are identified by their direction of origin

relative to the person faacing the audience.

Frontlight: above and frontal to the person standing on stage. Goals are toprovide visibility, allow faces to be seen and to help direct the audiences

focus. Often plotted to every anticipated performer location.

Typical frontlight wash starts with an even blend of several instruments in

a single zone. Often several zones are plotted to provide overlapping

coverage for the entire depth of the stage.

Diagonal frontlightis a light stiking a persons body from approximately

45 degrees from the centerline. A pair of instruments hung at this matching

angle from either side of centerline and then focused back towards eachfocus point is often referred to as rea frontlight.

Frontlight originating from below eye leve lis called low frontlight.Sources sitting on the stage producing this type of light are referred to as

foots.

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Sidelightlight striking a persons body approximately at a 90 degreeangle on either side of the centerline. If hung above the person, can be

called overhead sidelight. Instruments lower to the stage can be referred toas low sidelight or boom sidelight.

Overhead sidelight: provide dimensionality on performers bodies andthree-dimensional scenery.

Downlight or toplightsystem, instrumento r light beam originatingdirectly above a person standing on a stage.

o Hanging location: units on one side of the centerline should be

equidistant to each other and should match their counterparts on the

other side of the centerline.

o Match barrell softness so that one beam doesnt stand out.

Backlight - system, instrumento r light beam originating from behind aperson standing on stage, pointing towards the audience.

The backdrop wash

Lighting backdrops, cycs and translucencies can be an art in itself. Painted

backdrops might require specials to pop out parts of the backdrop or usually the

challenge is creating an even wash of light, without hotspots, dark spots or bands

of lower intensity.

Most drops can be lit with some kind of striplight or cyc light. For translucenciesor seamless drops, the first choice is to place lights low and behind (striplight

groundrow). If theres room in the air, another row of the same kind of

instruments is hung across a battern to crate an overhead striplight.

Overhead template wash

Templeate wash refers to a system of light that rather than a smooth blend wash is

broken up or textured.

Electricity

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The control path provides separate control of the voltaje supplied to a light. Thefour points are the device, the circuit, the source and the control.

Electricity is supplied to a device, a lighting instrument. The electrical source is a

dimmer that regulates the amount of current going into the light. The dimmer is

connected through a cable to it. The computer lighting console controlls thevoltage the dimmer outputs. The whole path must be unbroken for the light to

work.

Dimmers

Modern dimmers are base don SCR (Silicon-controlled rectifiers), some electroniccontrolls and a circuit breaker. Several dimmers are usually packeged into a single

unit containing specific shelves or racksand internal wiring called dimmer rack.

When constructing al ight plot, attention must be drawn to the number of dimmersthat will be used anad the amount of amperaje they can handle. When a number of

existing dimmers doesnt provide the amount of flexibility required to produce a

lighting design, one solution is to replug (repatch)cables during the performance.Other solutions are intsalling additional dimmer racks for the show.

Control

Two general terms are applied in theatrical situations where dimmers controlvoltaje to lighting instruments or devices. Manual controlimplies physical

movement of a handle, lever, dial, fader or slider to affect a dimmer. Anautotransformer light board is an example of this. Moving a slider up and down

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affects the voltaje supplied to the instrument and makes the light brighter or

darker.

Computer control impues an electronic interface with the dimmer rather than a

physical one.

Control also describes teh numerical arrangement of the channels or dimmers

that regulate instrument intensity. When a lighting plot is constructed, the lightingdesigner decides which instruments will operate together, which separately andhow they will numerically relate to each other. Their arrangement is documented

in a form called hookup. This is an old word, that when used nowadays in

conjunction with computerized lighting systems, refers also to electronically

assigning dimmers to control channels, this action is also referred to assoftpatching.

Hardpatching refers to physically plugging the cables into the dimmers in order

to provide control over a lighting instrument.

With a computer lighting console, no matter what dimmer the instrument has been

plugged into, the dimmer can be assigned to any channel by softpaching.

Cue and Memory nomenclature

The called cueis a commend (usually given by the stage manager) at a specific

moment to initiate a specific action. The spoken command results in an action, or

cue, being taken. A light cueusually implies a change in dimmer or channel

intensities from one state or look to another.

When referring to light cues, nomenclature is used to identify the type of cue beingdiscussed. Called cues are initiated by a command. A follow cue begins when the

first memory in the computer completes its fade. This is referred to as autofollow.

Types of light cues:

Preset cue: the lighting state seen on stage prior to the beginning of theshow or the opening of the main curtain.

Fronts up cue: first light cue called after the main curtain has been removed

to begin the performance.

Fronts out cue: substracts only frontlight from the previous cue. Often usedin final cue called before the curtain flies at the end of an act orperformance.

Base cue: name given to the first cue in a scene, upon which other lesssubstancial cue changes within the same scene are made.

Effect cue: programmed series of actions, typically involving a collectionof channels, in a sequential pattern.

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Fade to black cue: fades all the lights out.

Blackout: same as fade to black, but in zero count.

Bow cue: look used during curtain call.

Bow preset cue: as bow cue but without frontlight, used with closed

curtains. Bow ride cute: Adds frontlight to bow preset.

Restore cue: copy of previously used cue.

Postset cue: lighting state seen by the audience as they leave after the bows.

An opening sequence ofter beging with the house light fading 50% andends with the lighting state that establishes the first look in the show.

A transition sequence usually begins with the final cue of the first sceneand ends with the lighting state of the second scene.

A final sequence begins with the first cue changing the last established lookin the show and ends with bow preset cue.

Bow sequence: combination of front ups cue and blackouts and restores.

Computer l ight ing cons ole syntax

> continuous selection, 1>10 selects channels 1 through 10.

@ intensity 1>10@50 same, but at 50% intensity

+ plusminus 1>10+15 @ 25 Channels 1-10 and 15 at 25% intensity

To select channels 1 to 5 and 7 to 10 at 70% , 1>10-6 @ 70

Time Fades

Dimmer moving up are upfades, down they are downfades. Time fade is definedas the duration of time that occurs between the moment the GO button is pressed

and the moment the fade is complete.

Waits and Delays

Waitthe time between pressing the GO button and when the effect is actually

loaded ino the fader.

Delay- implies a link to another memory, usually the next in sequence. Amountof time between pressing the GO button (loads memory 1 into fader) and when the

cue that it is linked to (in this case, memory 2) automatically loads into the fader.

The GO button is pressed once to complete two fades.

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These terms (time fade, wait and delay) might be interchangeable depending on

manufacturer.

Building a lighting design

Light plot map that graphically represents the physical components of a lighting

design, showing the position and electrical assignments of all the instruments and

electrical devices used to provide illumination and visual effects for a production.Drawn in a groundplan point of view, also shows any other elements of the show.

Lighting packagelist of equipment

Lighting sectionside look at the venue with same components as light plot.

The light plot

Plan view of the stage showing where each instrument is located. The instrument

type is represented by a symbol. Each light is identified by unit number placedwithin the symbol. Depending on designer, color, purpose (or focus), circuit (or

dimmer) and control channel, each unit may also be listed on the plot.

Today most lighting designers create their light plots on a computer screen using a

CAD program such as VectorWorks. The instrument number, color, control

channel, etc. (called attributes in CADspeak) are entered into the computers

memory and associated with each symbol plotted on the drawing. This information

is then exported from the CAD program and imported into a data base or spreadsheet program (such as Microsoft Excel) where it is sorted by channel number

generating a hook-up chart.

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Numberingunits in each position are numbered starting from 1 at the stage leftend position. Each unit is identified by mouting position and instrument number.

4Pipe5, 1BoomR 4.

The instrument key is as follows:

Information that must be included in title block:

Name of show

Producing organization

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Title of the sheet, light plot.

Designers name

Scale

Initials of the draftsman or other designer

Date Version number

Sheet number

Ellipsoidals: 1, 2, 7, 12, 13

Fresnels: 4, 6, 8, 10

Par cans: 3, 11

Scoops: 5, 9

Which are plugged into channel 4Lamps 1 and 2, Moonlight from stage left.

Which are individually controlled? 4, 7, 10

Which are linked together? 1 and 2, 3 and 11, 5 and 9, 6 and 8, 12 and 13.

Which channels control the instruments gelled in R51? 1, 2, 3.

Minimum number of circuits? Eight. One per channel.

Maximum number of circuits? One per light, 13.

The lighting designers paperwork

The lists and schedules a light designer makes are:

1. Shop Order

2. Magic Sheet3. Focus Chart

4. Cue List5. Cue Sheet

6. Hook up chart

7. Instrument Schedule

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Shop Order

If the equipment is going to be rented or borrowed, the designer will need to

develop a shop order, a detailed list of all the equipment needed to light theproduction. The list must include:

1. Basic hardware

2. Lighting instruments

3. Cable

4. Accessories5. Color gels

6. Control equipment

Please read page 157 through 169 of coursebook.

Magic sheet

The magic sheet is a quick reference, usually one or two pages long, to everycannel and the group of lighting instuments it controls. The information is typically

organized by function, grouped by rea, color and direction. It is used by the

designer during tech and dress rehearsals to speed up the process of setting andadjusting levels.

Example:http://www3.northern.edu/wild/litedes/OneActs_MgSht.pdf

Ken Billingtons magic sheets for Sweney Todd can be seen athttp://thelightingarchive.org/, click on Archive > Ken Billington > Sweeney Todd.

Focus Chart

Written record of the focus of each instrument in the plot. Typically organized likethe instrument Schedule, by mounting position and unit number. The docus point

is defined by where the designer is standing when the instrument is focused. If the

unit is a leko, the four shutter cuts and the position of the lens barrel (soft to hard

edge) are indicated. If the lamp is Fresnel, the lamp position in either spot or flood.

http://lightingdb.nypl.org/documents/1072673

http://www.mckernon.com/_/Focus_Charts.html
http://www3.northern.edu/wild/litedes/OneActs_MgSht.pdfhttp://www3.northern.edu/wild/litedes/OneActs_MgSht.pdfhttp://www3.northern.edu/wild/litedes/OneActs_MgSht.pdfhttp://lightingdb.nypl.org/documents/1072673http://lightingdb.nypl.org/documents/1072673http://www.mckernon.com/_/Focus_Charts.htmlhttp://www.mckernon.com/_/Focus_Charts.htmlhttp://www.mckernon.com/_/Focus_Charts.htmlhttp://lightingdb.nypl.org/documents/1072673http://www3.northern.edu/wild/litedes/OneActs_MgSht.pdf

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Cue list

Prel iminary Cue Master

Coursebook, page 60

Document that highlights each moment that the light changes during a show.Reflects visual light changes over the course of an entire production. Like a movie

storyboard.

Start by marking out big, obvious moments, like the beginning or end of a scene.

Then make notes for smaller changes, like curtain opening or stage actions.

Finally, more minute changes to reinforce the slow shift of emotions in the scene.

You record all this in sequential order so that it can be remembered and later used.

If the medium is music, you can write it into the score or lyrics.

When making the cue master as a separate spreadsheet document, you begin by

outlining the different acts and the scenes in each act. Within each scene, you fillin sequential order the list of changes, indicating placement, timing, purpose and

action of each change. Also strart with transition between scenes.

Prel iminary Magic Sheet

Once you have built the cue master, you might notice some light configurationsrepeat themselves, which means that some looks are systems that might be useful

in other scenes.

As each of the broad looks imagined in the cue master becomes clearer, the

systems and specials that will be required to create each overall look are then listenon this document like recipes in a cookbook. This is often broken into several

columns> one for systems and washes, another for specials. Once done, you can

compare between scenes.

Allows you to see what systems and specials can be reused for other scenes.

The Cue List

Should include:

Cue number: Q1, Q2

The count

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The location in the script, page and line number, or in the score

A description of the cue or line

A description of the lighting effect

The Cue Sheet

List of lighting cues arranged in numerical order, its the light board operators

script. It indicates a physicall action (cross fade from A to B, etc) and must beperformed when stage manager gives the GO.

Should include the cue number (Q10), the count in seconds (10) and the action to

execute. If the stage manager does no call the show, the cue sheet will also include

the go line or action and a brief description of the effect.

Hook up chartPage 214 of coursebook

Indicates which cannel controls each light. Mounting position, instrument number,

dimmer number, color and focus for each light is listed.

Instrument Schedule

Page 211 of coursebook.

The instrument schedule lists each unit by mounting position and instrumentnumber. Also included in the schedule is the control channel, dimmer, color, andfocus.

The paper work software program used by most designers and electricians in the

industry isLightWrightby John McKernon. A free, fully functional, 75 lamp demo

version is available on line.

LightWright also has the ability to export a patch file which can be easily imported

into the ExpressionOff-Line editor.A patch file can also be created in MS Excell,but it requires more manipulation of the data.
http://www.mckernon.com/http://www3.northern.edu/wild/th241/sc14b.htm#ques7http://www3.northern.edu/wild/th241/sc14b.htm#ques7http://www.mckernon.com/

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Avolites Tiger Touch

Guide to Tiger Touch

Touch screenfixture, palette and group select buttons. Legends forplayback faders and shows current men page and softkey butons on thetop right of the screen.

Playback faders

select and control cues and programs Preset playbacks and macro buttons additional playbacks and macro

buttons allow storage of frequent key sequences.

Programming and setup controls configure and program the console

Main con trols

Workspace windowson the touch screen. Touch buttons for fixtures, palettes,

groups, playbacks, macros and more. Set fixture attributes and show information

windows.

System display and menushows what is going on. Shows informationdepending on what you are doing.

Menu SoftkeysLabelled A-G. Used to select control options. Display next to thebuttons shows what each one will do. Options for each key change depending on

what you are doing. Softkey commands are shown in the manual with square

brackets [].

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Preset playbacks Store and play cues or chases that you need frequently.

A macrois a series of functions or keystrokes that are programmed to be executed

with the press of a single button or button combination

Macro buttons store frequently used sequences which can be replaced with a

single button keypress. Playbacks can also be stored here.

Master faderoverall output of the console. Normally set at full. The DBO

button blacks out the whole console.

Playback fadersstore and playback cues or chases. Page Select buttons let you

change to different page of playbacks. Touch screen above shows informationabout each playback.

Mode Switchselects programming, run or systems mode of operation.

Control wheels - set control values for the fixtures and set speeds and fades.Touch screen shows information about attributes being controlled. Press the

Window Scroll Button to switch the wheels into scroll mode, to move a selection

box around the screen when editing.

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Numeric keypadto enter values and change controls.

Function buttons - carry out functions such as storing cues, copying, saving todisk, etc. Light is on when active.

Attribute select buttonsSelect which attributes of a fixture are going to becontrolled using the control wheels. Lights show which are active. The bottom red

button allows you to locate fixtures, sets them to a known start position whileprogramming.

Star t ing u p and sh ut t ing down

Start uppressing and releasing the power switch at the left hand side of the touch

screen. Takes 90 secs.

Shut downby pressing and releasing the power switch again.

For a Forced Shutdown, press the power switch for 5 seconds.

Using the touch screen and monitor

Worskpace windows

The main area of the screen contains the workspace windows. These have buttons

for selecting fixtures, groups, palettes, playbacks, etc.

Select which workspace window you want by pressing the window selectionbutton on the right of the touch screen.

Shor tcuts

View + Atribute Bank for Palette Window.

View + Patch for Patch View Window

View + Fixture select button for Fixture View window

View + Connect for View Cue Window

View + Off for Active Playback window

View + Macro for Macr window

Menu area

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Visual izer

Allows you to view the output if you cant use the real lights. Shown in workspace

window, either on the touch screen or on the external monitor. Press window

options, move screento move from one to the other.

Key Macro but tons

Record sequences of keypresses and play them back with a single keypres. To

record a macro:

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1. Press the macro button, above keypad

2. Press record

3. Press an empty macro button on the panel or an empty button in the macrowindow screen. Recording starts. Insert/macro button flashes during

recording.

4. Press the sequence of buttons you want to record.

5. Press Record Macro to finish recording.

Keyboard shor tcuts

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Patching

Patching tells the console:

What type of lights you have connected

What DMX addresses are operating

Which DMX line each unit is connected to.

Which buttons in the console you want to use to Access them.

Particular options and setting of each fixture.

Patching new fixtures or dimmers

If Fixtures window is not shown, press Fixtures button on the right of the screento show it or press viewthen [show workspace window] them [fixtures].

Each fixture button can control single or multiple dimmer channels.

1. Press patch, then [dimmers]2. [dmx line=] shows you which dmx output lines you are patching onto.

3. To patch a single dimmer, press Fixture Select button. To patch a sequence,

[quantity].4. Select button turn dark blue and show fixture details.

5. Repeat.

Patching should be done in the console when we use it. So not necessary to go

more into the matter. If interested, further information can be found in the manual.

Controlling dimmers and fixtures

To select the fixtures or dimmer channels you want to control, use Fixture Select

buttons.

Press select buttons for the fixtures you want. They light up pale blue.

The locatebutton puts them into a known position with light on so that you can

programe them.

Clear button, in the numeric keypad, clears selection.

Changing attr ibutes with th e wheels

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Attributesare functions of the fixture, liek pan, tilt, color, dimmer, etc. You select

the ones you want to modify using the Attribute bank buttons and set values using

the wheels.

1. With fixtures selected, press the attribute to be changed button

2. Turn the wheels to set the attribute

Setting atr ibutes with the tou ch s creen

Press Viewthen [Open Workspace Window] then [Attribute Editor] to show it.Buttons on the left select the attribute.

Rest of the window contains buttons or controls to set the attribute value.

When you apply an attribute, the button turns blue to show its in. If you touch the

button again, it will be removed.

Lamping f ix tures on and o f f

Many fixtures have a control channel which allows you to perform functions likelamp on, lamp off, fixture reset, etc. Useful to shut down lamps at the end of the

show or to reset a light that has gone crazy.

1. Press exit until you reach top level menu

2. Select the fixtures you wish to control.

3. Press fixture tools/menu latch and then Macros4. Choose function you wish.

Palettes

When programming a show, you will frequently use certain positios, colours, etc.The console lets you store these settings so that you can recall them on the wheel

every time.

Palettes are stored and selected using buttons on the touch screen, grouped into

different windows for Colours Positions and Gobos & Beams.

Storing a palette

1. Press Clear to clear the programmer2. Select fixtures you want to store palette values

3. Set attributes you want in the palette entry.

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4. Press Record Palette button

5. Set the Palette Maskthis sets which attributes will be recorded in the

palette. Select using Attribute bank buttons.6. Press unused palette button to store palette or enter palette number and

press Store.

Cue recording

Page 1 Bridge Light

Page 2 Blinders

Page 3 Sidelights

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COA 447 2014 notes

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Transcript of COA 447 2014 notes