Cuestionarios Economía

7/21/2019 Cuestionarios Economía

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/cuestionarios-economia-56dbebe613b09 1/23

Escasez de Recursos-Teorías Económicas

Es necesario entonces analizar las ideas más trascendentales en la historia,

hechas por economistas o expertos en el área, de esa manera podemos

concluir cual es el punto común del uso de recursos alimentarios.Seleccionamos a Smith, y a Marx por ser los padres de cada una de las más

fuertes ideas económica. Además presentamos a Keynes y a Stalin por ser

expertos en el área de economía y por crear planes de coniencia de los

po!ladores de los países. "inalmente Malthus demuestra matemáticamente

el dilema de la alimentación. Eidentemente, el análisis no es su#ciente,

hay $ue ser críticos y concluir o!%etiamente so!re la información

presentada, para sintetizar los datos en una sola idea.

&na de las o!ras más importantes de Keynes, en esta relaciona el empleo y

su contraparte' el desempleo con la escasez y la correcta utilización de los

recursos y las inersiones

Esta pá(ina muestra diersos documentos $ue nos explican como los

soi)ticos, !a%o el mando de Stalin, lo(raron con planes $uin$uenales a!atir

muchos pro!lemas

Malthus presenta todas las ertientes del aumento po!lacional y como )ste

afecta a la producción y la alimentación en el mundo, pro!a!lemente el más

importante pues esta!lece directamente causas $ue afectan los recursos

alimentarios en el mundo.

Adam Smith, en el capítulo * de su o!ra maestra ha!la de los recursos y

como estos lo(ran ser aproechados, al i(ual $ue Marx, su análisis es

esencial por$ue )l es uno de los padres de la economía.

"inalmente esco(imos a Marx puesto $ue su teoría socialista es esencial

para la distri!ución de recursos, como ha ido e ira eolucionando y además

esta!lece ideas esenciales acerca del uso de todo tipo de recursos.



Fragmento- “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by

Adam Smith 1776 oo! 1" Cha#ter $ %f the Wages of &abour'

()* #rodu+e of labour +onstitutes the natural re+om#ense or ,ages of labour

“ In that original state of things" ,hi+h #re+edes both the a##ro#riation of land and

the a++umulation of sto+!" the ,hole #rodu+e of labour belongs to the labourer )e

has neither landlord nor master to share ,ith him

)ad this state +ontinued" the ,ages of labour ,ould ha.e augmented ,ith all those

im#ro.ements in its #rodu+ti.e #o,ers to ,hi+h the di.ision of labour gi.es

o++asion All things ,ould gradually ha.e be+ome +hea#er (hey ,ould ha.e been

#rodu+ed by a smaller quantity of labour/ and as the +ommodities #rodu+ed by

equal quantities of labour ,ould naturally in this state of things be e0+hanged for

one another" they ,ould ha.e been #ur+hased li!e,ise ,ith the #rodu+e of a

smaller quantity

ut though all things ,ould ha.e be+ome +hea#er in reality" in a##earan+e many

things might ha.e be+ome dearer than before" or ha.e been e0+hanged for a

greater quantity of other goods &et us su##ose" for e0am#le" that in the greater#art of em#loyments the #rodu+ti.e #o,ers of labour had been im#ro.ed to ten

fold" or that a days labour +ould #rodu+e ten times the quantity of ,or! ,hi+h it

had done originally/ but that in a #arti+ular em#loyment they had been im#ro.ed"

only to double" or that a days labour +ould #rodu+e only t,i+e the quantity of ,or!

,hi+h it had done before In e0+hanging the #rodu+e of a days labour in the greater

#art of em#loyments for that of a days labour in this #arti+ular one" ten times the

original quantity of ,or! in them ,ould #ur+hase only t,i+e the original quantity in

it Any #arti+ular quantity in it" therefore" a #ound ,eight" for e0am#le" ,ould

a##ear to be 2.e times dearer than before In reality" ho,e.er" it ,ould be t,i+e as

+hea# (hough it required 2.e times the quantity of other goods to #ur+hase it" it

,ould require only half the quantity of labour either to #ur+hase or to #rodu+e it

(he a+quisition" therefore" ,ould be t,i+e as easy as before

ut this original state of things" in ,hi+h the labourer en3oyed the ,hole #rodu+e of

his o,n labour" +ould not last beyond the 2rst introdu+tion of the a##ro#riation of

land and the a++umulation of sto+! It ,as at an end" therefore" long before the

most +onsiderable im#ro.ements ,ere made in the #rodu+ti.e #o,ers of labour"



and it ,ould be to no #ur#ose to tra+e further ,hat might ha.e been its e4e+ts

u#on the re+om#ense or ,ages of labour

As soon as land be+omes #ri.ate #ro#erty" the landlord demands a share of almost

all the #rodu+e ,hi+h the labourer +an either raise" or +olle+t from it )is rent ma!es

the 2rst dedu+tion from the #rodu+e of the labour ,hi+h is em#loyed u#on land

It seldom ha##ens that the #erson ,ho tills the ground has ,here,ithal to maintain

himself till he rea#s the har.est )is maintenan+e is generally ad.an+ed to him from

the sto+! of a master" the farmer ,ho em#loys him" and ,ho ,ould ha.e no interest

to em#loy him" unless he ,as to share in the #rodu+e of his labour" or unless his

sto+! ,as to be re#la+ed to him ,ith a #ro2t (his #ro2t" ma!es a se+ond dedu+tion

from the #rodu+e of the labour ,hi+h is em#loyed u#on land

(he #rodu+e of almost all other labour is liable to the li!e dedu+tion of #ro2t In all

arts and manufa+tures the greater #art of the ,or!men stand in need of a master to

ad.an+e them the materials of their ,or!" and their ,ages and maintenan+e till it

be +om#leted )e shares in the #rodu+e of their labour" or in the .alue ,hi+h it adds

to the materials u#on ,hi+h it is besto,ed/ and in this share +onsists his #ro2t

It sometimes ha##ens" indeed" that a single inde#endent ,or!man has sto+!

su5+ient both to #ur+hase the materials of his ,or!" and to maintain himself till it

be +om#leted )e is both master and ,or!man" and en3oys the ,hole #rodu+e of his

o,n labour" or the ,hole .alue ,hi+h it adds to the materials u#on ,hi+h it is

besto,ed It in+ludes ,hat are usually t,o distin+t re.enues" belonging to t,o

distin+t #ersons" the #ro2ts of sto+!" and the ,ages of labour

Su+h +ases" ho,e.er" are not .ery frequent" and in e.ery #art of *uro#e" t,enty

,or!men ser.e under a master for one that is inde#endent/ and the ,ages of labour

are e.ery,here understood to be" ,hat they usually are" ,hen the labourer is one

#erson" and the o,ner of the sto+! ,hi+h em#loys him another

What are the +ommon ,ages of labour" de#ends e.ery,here u#on the +ontra+t

usually made bet,een those t,o #arties" ,hose interests are by no means the

same (he ,or!men desire to get as mu+h" the masters to gi.e as little as #ossible

(he former are dis#osed to +ombine in order to raise" the latter in order to lo,er the

,ages of labour

It is not" ho,e.er" di5+ult to foresee ,hi+h of the t,o #arties must" u#on all

ordinary o++asions" ha.e the ad.antage in the dis#ute" and for+e the other into a

+om#lian+e ,ith their terms (he masters" being fe,er in number" +an +ombine

mu+h more easily/ and the la," besides" authories" or at least does not #rohibit

their +ombinations" ,hile it #rohibits those of the ,or!men We ha.e no a+ts of

#arliament against +ombining to lo,er the #ri+e of ,or!/ but many against

+ombining to raise it In all su+h dis#utes the masters +an hold out mu+h longer A

landlord" a farmer" a master manufa+turer" a mer+hant" though they did not em#loy



a single ,or!man" +ould generally li.e a year or t,o u#on the sto+!s ,hi+h they

ha.e already a+quired any ,or!men +ould not subsist a ,ee!" fe, +ould subsist a

month" and s+ar+e any a year ,ithout em#loyment In the long run the ,or!man

may be as ne+essary to his master as his master is to him/ but the ne+essity is not

so immediate

We rarely hear" it has been said" of the +ombinations of masters" though frequently

of those of ,or!men ut ,hoe.er imagines" u#on this a++ount" that masters rarely

+ombine" is as ignorant of the ,orld as of the sub3e+t asters are al,ays and

e.ery,here in a sort of ta+it" but +onstant and uniform +ombination" not to raise the

,ages of labour abo.e their a+tual rate (o .iolate this +ombination is e.ery,here a

most un#o#ular a+tion" and a sort of re#roa+h to a master among his neighbours

and equals We seldom" indeed" hear of this +ombination" be+ause it is the usual"

and one may say" the natural state of things" ,hi+h nobody e.er hears of asters"

too" sometimes enter into #arti+ular +ombinations to sin! the ,ages of labour e.en

belo, this rate (hese are al,ays +ondu+ted ,ith the utmost silen+e and se+re+y"

till the moment of e0e+ution" and ,hen the ,or!men yield" as they sometimes do",ithout resistan+e" though se.erely felt by them" they are ne.er heard of by other

#eo#le Su+h +ombinations" ho,e.er" are frequently resisted by a +ontrary

defensi.e +ombination of the ,or!men/ ,ho sometimes too" ,ithout any

#ro.o+ation of this !ind" +ombine of their o,n a++ord to raise the #ri+e of their

labour (heir usual #reten+es are" sometimes the high #ri+e of #ro.isions/

sometimes the great #ro2t ,hi+h their masters ma!e by their ,or! ut ,hether

their +ombinations be o4ensi.e or defensi.e" they are al,ays abundantly heard of

In order to bring the #oint to a s#eedy de+ision" they ha.e al,ays re+ourse to the

loudest +lamour" and sometimes to the most sho+!ing .iolen+e and outrage (hey

are des#erate" and a+t ,ith the folly and e0tra.agan+e of des#erate men" ,ho musteither star.e" or frighten their masters into an immediate +om#lian+e ,ith their

demands (he masters u#on these o++asions are 3ust as +lamorous u#on the other

side" and ne.er +ease to +all aloud for the assistan+e of the +i.il magistrate" and the

rigorous e0e+ution of those la,s ,hi+h ha.e been ena+ted ,ith so mu+h se.erity

against the +ombinations of ser.ants" labourers" and 3ourneymen (he ,or!men"

a++ordingly" .ery seldom deri.e any ad.antage from the .iolen+e of those

tumultuous +ombinations" ,hi+h" #artly from the inter#osition of the +i.il

magistrate" #artly from the ne+essity su#erior steadiness of the masters" #artly

from the ne+essity ,hi+h the greater #art of the ,or!men are under of submitting

for the sa!e of #resent subsisten+e" generally end in nothing" but the #unishment or

ruin of the ringleaders

ut though in dis#utes ,ith their ,or!men" masters must generally ha.e the

ad.antage" there is" ho,e.er" a +ertain rate belo, ,hi+h it seems im#ossible to

redu+e" for any +onsiderable time" the ordinary ,ages e.en of the lo,est s#e+ies of

labour



A man must al,ays li.e by his ,or!" and his ,ages must at least be su5+ient to

maintain him (hey must e.en u#on most o++asions be some,hat more/ other,ise

it ,ould be im#ossible for him to bring u# a family" and the ra+e of su+h ,or!men

+ould not last beyond the 2rst generation r Cantillon seems" u#on this a++ount" to

su##ose that the lo,est s#e+ies of +ommon labourers must e.ery,here earn at

least double their o,n maintenan+e" in order that one ,ith another they may beenabled to bring u# t,o +hildren/ the labour of the ,ife" on a++ount of her

ne+essary attendan+e on the +hildren" being su##osed no more than su5+ient to

#ro.ide for herself ut one half the +hildren born" it is +om#uted" die before the age

of manhood (he #oorest labourers" therefore" a++ording to this a++ount" must" one

,ith another" attem#t to rear at least four +hildren" in order that t,o may ha.e an

equal +han+e of li.ing to that age ut the ne+essary maintenan+e of four +hildren"

it is su##osed" may be nearly equal to that of one man (he labour of an able-

bodied sla.e" the same author adds" is +om#uted to be ,orth double his

maintenan+e/ and that of the meanest labourer" he thin!s" +annot be ,orth less

than that of an ablebodied sla.e (hus far at least seems +ertain" that" in order to

bring u# a family" the labour of the husband and ,ife together must" e.en in the

lo,est s#e+ies of +ommon labour" be able to earn something more than ,hat is

#re+isely ne+essary for their o,n maintenan+e/ but in ,hat #ro#ortion" ,hether in

that abo.e mentioned" or in any other" I shall not ta!e u#on me to determine

(here are +ertain +ir+umstan+es" ho,e.er" ,hi+h sometimes gi.e the labourers an

ad.antage" and enable them to raise their ,ages +onsiderably abo.e this rate/

e.idently the lo,est ,hi+h is +onsistent ,ith +ommon humanity

When in any +ountry the demand for those ,ho li.e by ,ages" labourers"

3ourneymen" ser.ants of e.ery !ind" is +ontinually in+reasing/ ,hen e.ery year

furnishes em#loyment for a greater number than had been em#loyed the year

before" the ,or!men ha.e no o++asion to +ombine in order to raise their ,ages (he

s+ar+ity of hands o++asions a +om#etition among masters" ,ho bid against one

another" in order to get ,or!men" and thus .oluntarily brea! through the natural

+ombination of masters not to raise ,ages

(he demand for those ,ho li.e by ,ages" it is e.ident" +annot in+rease but in

#ro#ortion to the in+rease of the funds ,hi+h are destined for the #ayment of

,ages (hese funds are of t,o !inds/ 2rst" re.enue ,hi+h is o.er and abo.e ,hat is

ne+essary for the maintenan+e/ and" se+ondly" the sto+! ,hi+h is o.er and abo.e

,hat is ne+essary for the em#loyment of their masters

When the landlord" annuitant" or monied man" has a greater re.enue than ,hat he

3udges su5+ient to maintain his o,n family" he em#loys either the ,hole or a #art

of the sur#lus in maintaining one or more menial ser.ants In+rease this sur#lus"

and he ,ill naturally in+rease the number of those ser.ants



When an inde#endent ,or!man" su+h as a ,ea.er or shoema!er" has got more

sto+! than ,hat is su5+ient to #ur+hase the materials of his o,n ,or!" and to

maintain himself till he +an dis#ose of it" he naturally em#loys one or more

3ourneymen ,ith the sur#lus" in order to ma!e a #ro2t by their ,or! In+rease this

sur#lus" and he ,ill naturally in+rease the number of his 3ourneymen

(he demand for those ,ho li.e by ,ages" therefore" ne+essarily in+reases ,ith the

in+rease of the re.enue and sto+! of e.ery +ountry" and +annot #ossibly in+rease

,ithout it (he in+rease of re.enue and sto+! is the in+rease of national ,ealth (he

demand for those ,ho li.e by ,ages" therefore" naturally in+reases ,ith the

in+rease of national ,ealth" and +annot #ossibly in+rease ,ithout it

It is not the a+tual greatness of national ,ealth" but its +ontinual in+rease" ,hi+h

o++asions a rise in the ,ages of labour It is not" a++ordingly" in the ri+hest

+ountries" but in the most thri.ing" or in those ,hi+h are gro,ing ri+h the fastest"

that the ,ages of labour are highest *ngland is +ertainly" in the #resent times" a

mu+h ri+her +ountry than any #art of North Ameri+a (he ,ages of labour" ho,e.er"are mu+h higher in North Ameri+a than in any #art of *ngland In the #ro.in+e of

Ne, 8or!" +ommon labourers earn three shillings and si0#en+e +urren+y" equal to

t,o shillings sterling" a day/ shi# +ar#enters" ten shillings and si0#en+e +urren+y"

,ith a #int of rum ,orth si0#en+e sterling" equal in all to si0 shillings and si0#en+e

sterling/ house +ar#enters and bri+!layers" eight shillings +urren+y" equal to four

shillings and si0#en+e sterling/ 3ourneymen tailors" 2.e shillings +urren+y" equal to

about t,o shillings and ten#en+e sterling (hese #ri+es are all abo.e the &ondon

#ri+e/ and ,ages are said to be as high in the other +olonies as in Ne, 8or! (he

#ri+e of #ro.isions is e.ery,here in North Ameri+a mu+h lo,er than in *ngland A

dearth has ne.er been !no,n there In the ,orst seasons they ha.e al,ays had a

su5+ien+y for themsel.es" though less for e0#ortation If the money #ri+e of labour"

therefore" be higher than it is any,here in the mother +ountry" its real #ri+e" the

real +ommand of the ne+essaries and +on.enien+ies of life ,hi+h it +on.eys to the

labourer must be higher in a still greater #ro#ortion

ut though North Ameri+a is not yet so ri+h as *ngland" it is mu+h more thri.ing"

and ad.an+ing ,ith mu+h greater ra#idity to the further a+quisition of ri+hes (he

most de+isi.e mar! of the #ros#erity of any +ountry is the in+rease of the number of

its inhabitants In 9reat ritain" and most other *uro#ean +ountries" they are not

su##osed to double in less than 2.e hundred years In the ritish +olonies in North

Ameri+a" it has been found that they double in t,enty or 2.e-and-t,enty years Norin the #resent times is this in+rease #rin+i#ally o,ing to the +ontinual im#ortation of

ne, inhabitants" but to the great multi#li+ation of the s#e+ies (hose ,ho li.e to old

age" it is said" frequently see there from 2fty to a hundred" and sometimes many

more" des+endants from their o,n body &abour is there so ,ell re,arded that a

numerous family of +hildren" instead of being a burthen" is a sour+e of o#ulen+e and

#ros#erity to the #arents (he labour of ea+h +hild" before it +an lea.e their house"

is +om#uted to be ,orth a hundred #ounds +lear gain to them A young ,ido, ,ith



four or 2.e young +hildren" ,ho" among the middling or inferior ran!s of #eo#le in

*uro#e" ,ould ha.e so little +han+e for a se+ond husband" is there frequently

+ourted as a sort of fortune (he .alue of +hildren is the greatest of all

en+ouragements to marriage We +annot" therefore" ,onder that the #eo#le in North

Ameri+a should generally marry .ery young Not,ithstanding the great in+rease

o++asioned by su+h early marriages" there is a +ontinual +om#laint of the s+ar+ity of hands in North Ameri+a (he demand for labourers" the funds destined for

maintaining them" in+rease" it seems" still faster than they +an 2nd labourers to

em#loy

(hough the ,ealth of a +ountry should be .ery great" yet if it has been long

stationary" ,e must not e0#e+t to 2nd the ,ages of labour .ery high in it (he funds

destined for the #ayment of ,ages" the re.enue and sto+! of its inhabitants" may be

of the greatest e0tent/ but if they ha.e +ontinued for se.eral +enturies of the same"

or .ery nearly of the same e0tent" the number of labourers em#loyed e.ery year

+ould easily su##ly" and e.en more than su##ly" the number ,anted the follo,ing

year (here +ould seldom be any s+ar+ity of hands" nor +ould the masters be obligedto bid against one another in order to get them (he hands" on the +ontrary" ,ould"

in this +ase" naturally multi#ly beyond their em#loyment (here ,ould be a +onstant

s+ar+ity of em#loyment" and the labourers ,ould be obliged to bid against one

another in order to get it If in su+h a +ountry the ,ages of labour had e.er been

more than su5+ient to maintain the labourer" and to enable him to bring u# a

family" the +om#etition of the labourers and the interest of the masters ,ould soon

redu+e them to this lo,est rate ,hi+h is +onsistent ,ith +ommon humanity China

has been long one of the ri+hest" that is" one of the most fertile" best +ulti.ated"

most industrious" and most #o#ulous +ountries in ,orld It seems" ho,e.er" to ha.e

been long stationary ar+o :olo" ,ho .isited it more than 2.e hundred years ago"des+ribes its +ulti.ation" industry" and #o#ulousness" almost in the same terms in

,hi+h they are des+ribed by tra.ellers in the #resent times It had #erha#s" e.en

long before his time" a+quired that full +om#lement of ri+hes ,hi+h the nature of its

la,s and institutions #ermits it to a+quire (he a++ounts of all tra.ellers"

in+onsistent in many other res#e+ts" agree in the lo, ,ages of labour" and in the

di5+ulty ,hi+h a labourer 2nds in bringing u# a family in China If by digging the

ground a ,hole day he +an get ,hat ,ill #ur+hase a small quantity of ri+e in the

e.ening" he is +ontented (he +ondition of arti2+ers is" if #ossible" still ,orse

Instead of ,aiting indolently in their ,or!houses" for the +alls of their +ustomers" as

in *uro#e" they are +ontinually running about the streets ,ith the tools of their

res#e+ti.e trades" o4ering their ser.i+e" and as it ,ere begging em#loyment (he

#o.erty of the lo,er ran!s of #eo#le in China far sur#asses that of the most

beggarly nations in *uro#e In the neighbourhood of Canton many hundred" it is

+ommonly said" many thousand families ha.e no habitation on the land" but li.e

+onstantly in little 2shing boats u#on the ri.ers and +anals (he subsisten+e ,hi+h

they 2nd there is so s+anty that they are eager to 2sh u# the nastiest garbage

thro,n o.erboard from any *uro#ean shi# Any +arrion" the +ar+ase of a dead dog



or +at" for e0am#le" though half #utrid and stin!ing" is as ,el+ome to them as the

most ,holesome food to the #eo#le of other +ountries arriage is en+ouraged in

China" not by the #ro2tableness of +hildren" but by the liberty of destroying them In

all great to,ns se.eral are e.ery night e0#osed in the street" or dro,ned li!e

#u##ies in the ,ater (he #erforman+e of this horrid o5+e is e.en said to be the

a.o,ed business by ,hi+h some #eo#le earn their subsisten+e

China" ho,e.er" though it may #erha#s stand still" does not seem to go ba+!,ards

Its to,ns are no,here deserted by their inhabitants (he lands ,hi+h had on+e been

+ulti.ated are no,here negle+ted (he same or .ery nearly the same annual labour

must therefore +ontinue to be #erformed" and the funds destined for maintaining it

must not" +onsequently" be sensibly diminished (he lo,est +lass of labourers"

therefore" not,ithstanding their s+anty subsisten+e" must some ,ay or another

ma!e shift to +ontinue their ra+e so far as to !ee# u# their usual numbers'

Fragmento- An *ssay on the :rin+i#le of :o#ulation by (homas althus

“ C)A:(*; 1

<uestion stated--&ittle #ros#e+t of a determination of it" from the enmity of the

o##osing #arties--(he #rin+i#al argument against the #erfe+tibility of man and of

so+iety has ne.er been fairly ans,ered--Nature of the di5+ulty arising from

#o#ulation--%utline of the #rin+i#al argument of the *ssay

(he great and unloo!ed for dis+o.eries that ha.e ta!en #la+e of late years in natural

#hiloso#hy" the in+reasing di4usion of general !no,ledge from the e0tension of the

art of #rinting" the ardent and unsha+!led s#irit of inquiry that #re.ails throughout

the lettered and e.en unlettered ,orld" the ne, and e0traordinary lights that ha.e

been thro,n on #oliti+al sub3e+ts ,hi+h dale and astonish the understanding" and

#arti+ularly that tremendous #henomenon in the #oliti+al horion" the Fren+h

;e.olution" ,hi+h" li!e a blaing +omet" seems destined either to ins#ire ,ith fresh

life and .igour" or to s+or+h u# and destroy the shrin!ing inhabitants of the earth"

ha.e all +on+urred to lead many able men into the o#inion that ,e ,ere tou+hing on

a #eriod big ,ith the most im#ortant +hanges" +hanges that ,ould in some measure

be de+isi.e of the future fate of man!ind It has been said that the great question is

no, at issue" ,hether man shall hen+eforth start for,ards ,ith a++elerated .elo+ity

to,ards illimitable" and hitherto un+on+ei.ed im#ro.ement" or be +ondemned to a

#er#etual os+illation bet,een ha##iness and misery" and after e.ery e4ort remain

still at an immeasurable distan+e from the ,ished-for goal 8et" an0iously as e.eryfriend of man!ind must loo! for,ards to the termination of this #ainful sus#ense"

and eagerly as the inquiring mind ,ould hail e.ery ray of light that might assist its

.ie, into futurity" it is mu+h to be lamented that the ,riters on ea+h side of this

momentous question still !ee# far aloof from ea+h other (heir mutual arguments do

not meet ,ith a +andid e0amination (he question is not brought to rest on fe,er

#oints" and e.en in theory s+ar+ely seems to be a##roa+hing to a de+ision



(he ad.o+ate for the #resent order of things is a#t to treat the se+t of s#e+ulati.e

#hiloso#hers either as a set of artful and designing !na.es ,ho #rea+h u# ardent

bene.olen+e and dra, +a#ti.ating #i+tures of a ha##ier state of so+iety only the

better to enable them to destroy the #resent establishments and to for,ard their

o,n dee#-laid s+hemes of ambition" or as ,ild and mad-headed enthusiasts ,hose

silly s#e+ulations and absurd #arado0es are not ,orthy the attention of anyreasonable man=

(he ad.o+ate for the #erfe+tibility of man" and of so+iety" retorts on the defender of

establishments a more than equal +ontem#t )e brands him as the sla.e of the

most miserable and narro, #re3udi+es/ or as the defender of the abuses of +i.il

so+iety only be+ause he #ro2ts by them )e #aints him either as a +hara+ter ,ho

#rostitutes his understanding to his interest" or as one ,hose #o,ers of mind are

not of a sie to gras# anything great and noble" ,ho +annot see abo.e 2.e yards

before him" and ,ho must therefore be utterly unable to ta!e in the .ie,s of the

enlightened benefa+tor of man!ind

In this unami+able +ontest the +ause of truth +annot but su4er (he really good

arguments on ea+h side of the question are not allo,ed to ha.e their #ro#er ,eight

*a+h #ursues his o,n theory" little soli+itous to +orre+t or im#ro.e it by an attention

to ,hat is ad.an+ed by his o##onents

(he friend of the #resent order of things +ondemns all #oliti+al s#e+ulations in the

gross )e ,ill not e.en +ondes+end to e0amine the grounds from ,hi+h the

#erfe+tibility of so+iety is inferred u+h less ,ill he gi.e himself the trouble in a fair

and +andid manner to attem#t an e0#osition of their falla+y

(he s#e+ulati.e #hiloso#her equally o4ends against the +ause of truth With eyes20ed on a ha##ier state of so+iety" the blessings of ,hi+h he #aints in the most

+a#ti.ating +olours" he allo,s himself to indulge in the most bitter in.e+ti.es

against e.ery #resent establishment" ,ithout a##lying his talents to +onsider the

best and safest means of remo.ing abuses and ,ithout seeming to be a,are of the

tremendous obsta+les that threaten" e.en in theory" to o##ose the #rogress of man

to,ards #erfe+tion

It is an a+!no,ledged truth in #hiloso#hy that a 3ust theory ,ill al,ays be +on2rmed

by e0#eriment 8et so mu+h fri+tion and so many minute +ir+umstan+es o++ur in

#ra+ti+e" ,hi+h it is ne0t to im#ossible for the most enlarged and #enetrating mind

to foresee" that on fe, sub3e+ts +an any theory be #ronoun+ed 3ust" till all thearguments against it ha.e been maturely ,eighed and +learly and +onsistently

refuted

I ha.e read some of the s#e+ulations on the #erfe+tibility of man and of so+iety ,ith

great #leasure I ha.e been ,armed and delighted ,ith the en+hanting #i+ture

,hi+h they hold forth I ardently ,ish for su+h ha##y im#ro.ements ut I see great"

and" to my understanding" un+onquerable di5+ulties in the ,ay to them (hese



di5+ulties it is my #resent #ur#ose to state" de+laring" at the same time" that so far

from e0ulting in them" as a +ause of trium#h o.er the friends of inno.ation" nothing

,ould gi.e me greater #leasure than to see them +om#letely remo.ed

(he most im#ortant argument that I shall addu+e is +ertainly not ne, (he #rin+i#les

on ,hi+h it de#ends ha.e been e0#lained in #art by )ume" and more at large by >rAdam Smith It has been ad.an+ed and a##lied to the #resent sub3e+t" though not

,ith its #ro#er ,eight" or in the most for+ible #oint of .ie," by r Walla+e" and it

may #robably ha.e been stated by many ,riters that I ha.e ne.er met ,ith I

should +ertainly therefore not thin! of ad.an+ing it again" though I mean to #la+e it

in a #oint of .ie, in some degree di4erent from any that I ha.e hitherto seen" if it

had e.er been fairly and satisfa+torily ans,ered ?@

C)A:(*; B

(he di4erent ratio in ,hi+h #o#ulation and food in+rease(he ne+essary e4e+ts of

these di4erent ratios of in+rease-- %s+illation #rodu+ed by them in the +ondition of

the lo,er +lasses of so+iety--;easons ,hy this os+illation has not been so mu+h

obser.ed as might be e0#e+ted--(hree #ro#ositions on ,hi+h the general argument

of the *ssay de#ends--(he di4erent states in ,hi+h man!ind ha.e been !no,n to

e0ist #ro#osed to be e0amined ,ith referen+e to these three #ro#ositions

I said that #o#ulation" ,hen un+he+!ed" in+reased in a geometri+al ratio" and

subsisten+e for man in an arithmeti+alratio

&et us e0amine ,hether this #osition be 3ust I thin! it ,ill be allo,ed" that no state

has hitherto e0isted Dat least that ,e ha.e any a++ount ofE ,here the manners ,ere

so #ure and sim#le" and the means of subsisten+e so abundant" that no +he+!

,hate.er has e0isted to early marriages" among the lo,er +lasses" from a fear of

not #ro.iding ,ell for their families" or among the higher +lasses" from a fear of

lo,ering their +ondition in life

Consequently in no state that ,e ha.e yet !no,n has the #o,er of1B #o#ulation

been left to e0ert itself ,ith #erfe+t freedom

Whether the la, of marriage be instituted or not" the di+tate of nature and .irtue

seems to be an early atta+hment to one ,oman Su##osing a liberty of +hanging in

the +ase of an unfortunate +hoi+e" this liberty ,ould not a4e+t #o#ulation till it

arose to a height greatly .i+ious/ and ,e are no, su##osing the e0isten+e of a

so+iety ,here .i+e is s+ar+ely !no,n

In a state therefore of great equality and .irtue" ,here #ure and sim#le manners

#re.ailed" and ,here the means of subsisten+e ,ere so abundant that no #art of

the so+iety +ould ha.e any fears about #ro.iding am#ly for a family" the #o,er of

#o#ulation being left to e0ert itself un+he+!ed" the in+rease of the human s#e+ies

,ould e.idently be mu+h greater than any in+rease that has been hitherto !no,n



In the nited States of Ameri+a" ,here the means of subsisten+e ha.e been more

am#le" the manners of the #eo#le more #ure" and +onsequently the +he+!s to early

marriages fe,er" than in any of the modern states of *uro#e" the #o#ulation has

been found to double itself in t,enty-2.e years

(his ratio of in+rease" though short of the utmost #o,er of #o#ulation" yet as theresult of a+tual e0#erien+e" ,e ,ill ta!e as our rule" and say" that #o#ulation" ,hen

un+he+!ed" goes on doubling itself e.ery t,enty-2.e years or in+reases in a

geometri+al ratio ?@

C)A:(*; G

(he sa.age or hunter state shortly re.ie,ed--(he she#herd state"B1 or the tribes of

barbarians that o.erran the ;oman *m#ire(he su#eriority of the #o,er of

#o#ulation to the means of subsisten+e--the +ause of the great tide of Northern

*migration

In the rudest state of man!ind" in ,hi+h hunting is the #rin+i#al o++u#ation" and theonly mode of a+quiring food/ the means of subsisten+e being s+attered o.er a large

e0tent of territory" the +om#arati.e #o#ulation must ne+essarily be thin It is said

that the #assion bet,een the se0es is less ardent among the North Ameri+an

Indians" than among any other ra+e of men 8et" not,ithstanding this a#athy" the

e4ort to,ards #o#ulation" e.en in this #eo#le" seems to be al,ays greater than the

means to su##ort it (his a##ears" from the +om#arati.ely ra#id #o#ulation that

ta!es #la+e" ,hene.er any of the tribes ha##en to settle in some fertile s#ot" and to

dra, nourishment from more fruitful sour+es than that of hunting/ and it has been

frequently remar!ed that ,hen an Indian family has ta!en u# its abode near any

*uro#ean settlement" and ado#ted a more easy and +i.ilied mode of life" that one,oman has reared 2.e" or si0" or more +hildren/ though in the sa.age state it rarely

ha##ens that abo.e one or t,o in a family gro, u# to maturity (he same

obser.ation has been made ,ith regard to the )ottentots near the Ca#e (hese

fa+ts #ro.e the su#erior #o,er of #o#ulation to the means of subsisten+e in nations

of hunters" and that this #o,er al,ays she,s itself the moment it is left to a+t ,ith

freedom

It remains to inquire ,hether this #o,er +an be +he+!ed" and its e4e+ts !e#t equal

to the means of subsisten+e" ,ithout .i+e or misery ?@'

Fragmento- ar0s Crises (heoryH S+ar+ity" &abor" and Finan+e

“2

MARX, MALTHUS, AND THE CONCEPT OF NATURAL RESOURCE SCARCITY

MARX AND MALTHUS

ar0s usual #ra+ti+e ,as to #ro.ide an e0hausti.e +ritique of falla+ious do+trines of

#oliti+al e+onomy" no matter ho, obs+ure their origin might be >es#ite the



immense inuen+e of althus theory of #o#ulation" ar0s dis+ussion of that

sub3e+t ,as remar!ably brief *0+e#t for the referen+es to its ahistori+al nature

Dar0 1J77" +h B= se+ G/ and ar0 1J7G" 6K$E" he did little to +onfront it dire+tly

ore- o.er one of his relati.ely fe, referen+es to althus ,as do,nright attering

)e generously #raised althus as the only +lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomist to re+ognie

that longer hours of ,or! ,ere an im#ortant determinant of the rate oi #ro2tH LAllhonour to althus" that he lays stress on the lengthening of the hours of labourL

Dar0 1J77" 666nE Ne.ertheless" the s#e+tor of althusian s+ar+ity haunted ar0

%f althus “libel on the human ra+e"L he ,rote" “if this theory is +orre+t

so+ialism +annot abolish #o.erty" ,hi+h has its base in nature" but +an only ma!e it

general distribute it simultaneously o.er the ,hole of so+ietyL Dar0 1$7=" BGE

ar0" then" a##arently assigned more ,eight to the sub3e+t than the e0tent of his

+ritique might suggest In-deed" in the “After,ordL to his se+ond edition of Ca#ital"

for e0am#le"he too! the trouble to mention that a fa.orable re.ie,er had

s#e+i2+ally #raised his stan+e on the question of #o#ulation Dar0 1J77" 1K1-BE In

general" ho,e.er" so+ialistsM ob3e+tions to #o#ulationism ha.e not e0+luded their

,illingness to a++e#t that regulation of numbers might be bene2+ial under +ertain

+ir+umstan+es So+ialists understood the im#ortan+e of #o#ulation balan+e"

although other +on+erns may ha.e ta!en a higher #riority In this sense" &enins

attitude on

althusianism is instru+ti.e )e o##osed birth +ontrol only be+ause it ,ould tend to

redu+e the number of “#roletarian ,arriorsL in the +oming battle against +a#italism

D&enin 1J1GE

ar0 ,as +on.in+ed that the #roblems of #o#ulation and s+ar+ity" as ,ell as

en.ironmental abuse" +ould best be sol.ed by so+ialism D:erelman 1J7=E *ngels"

for e0am#le" obser.ed that on+e so+ialism ,as established" the rational +ontrol of

human #o#ulation ,ould be signi2+antly eased D*ngels to auts!y" February 1"

1$$1/ in ar0 and *ngels 1J7=+" G1=E ar0 and *ngels ,ere not alone in this

regard For e0am#le" Oohn Stuart ill seemed to agree ,ith them Dill 1$P$" b! B"

#t B" se+ GE

Among 9erman so+ialists the question of #o#ulation ,as es#e+ially tou+hy" sin+e

&assalle had in+or#orated althusianism as a dogma of the 9eneral Asso+iation of

9erman Wor!ers In *ngland so+ialists ,ere less in+lined to a++e#t althus

do+trines D>Ar+y 1J77E" but in 9ermany &assalle reinfor+ed the theoreti+al hold of

althusianism ,ithin the 9erman ,or!ersQ mo.ement by means of his in.ention ofthe term Lthe Iron &a, of WagesL Dsee *ngels to F A &ange" ar+h BJ" 1$6=" in

ar0 and *ngels 1J7=+" 161/ and *ngels to ebel" in ar0 and *ngels 1J7=+" B7P/

ar0 1$7=/ aumol 1J$GE

For ta+ti+al reasons" ho,e.er" any detailed e0amination of the #arti+ulars of

so+ialist so+iety ,as +onsistently a.oided by both ar0 and *ngels/ it ,ould only



ha.e o#ened them u# to endless nit#i+!ing by their o##onents" both ,ithin and

outside the so+ialist mo.ement

*ngels des+ribed his attitude on the sub3e+t in a letter to auts!yH

*.en though the atheder-So+ialists #ersistently +all u#on us #roletarian so+ialists

to tell them ho, ,e +an #re.ent o.er#o#ulation and the +onsequent threat to the

e0isten+e of the ne, so+ial order" l see no reason at all ,hy I should do them the

fa.or I +onsider it a sheer ,aste of time to dis#el all the s+ru#les and doubts of

those #eo#le ,hi+h arise from their muddled su#er- ,isdom" or e.en to refute" for

instan+e" the a,ful t,addle ,hi+h S+haeRe alone has +om#iled in his numerous big

.olumes D*ngels to auts!y" February 1" 1$$1" in ar0 and *ngels 1J7=+" G1=E

Was ar0 +orre+t to ha.e a.oided an o#en dis+ussion of his inter#reta- tion of

althusianism ar0s ,ritten re+ord on the sub3e+t of althusianism has to be

understood in light of the stated #ur#ose of his #ubli+ations )e +onsidered e.en his

most theoreti+al ,or! to be a #oliti+al a+t In this s#irit" he ,rote to Weydemeyer

about “the #oliti+al reasons' that di+tated the organiation of Ca#ital Dar0 to

Weydemeyer" February 1" 1$=J" in ar0 and *ngels lJ7=d" 1K6E In addition" letters

,ritten to +lose friends" after both the +om#letion of his

Critique of :oliti+al *+onomy and of Ca#ital" refer to his ,or!s in terms su+h as “a

.i+tory for our :artyL Dar0 to Weydemeyer" February 1" 1$=J" in ar0 and *ngels

1J7=K" 1K6E and as an attem#t “to raise the :arty as high as #ossibleL Dar0 to

ugelmann" %+tober 11" 1$67" in ar0 1JGP" =KE

ar0 had other reasons to a.oid a dire+t +onfrontation ,ith althusianism )is

analysis of the labor theory of .alue ,as di5+ult enough to e0#lain in its o,n terms

Im#ortant +ategories" su+h as rent" had to be #ut o4 until the third .olume of

Ca#ital (o ha.e broa+hed as emotional a sub3e+t as althusianism in the 2rst

.olume +ould ha.e been a #edagogi+al mista!e (hus to ans,er althus and

althusianism entailed a +ons+ious #oliti+al +hoi+e 9i.en the situation in 9ermany

alluded to abo.e ar0 ,as reti+ent to laun+h an all-out atta+! on the la, of

#o#ulation

(his ta+ti+ has +aused serious misinter#retations of ar0s ,or!s *.en today"

unsym#atheti+ readers +ommonly assume that be+ause only labor +reates .alue

,ithin the +onte0t of the labor theory of .alue" ar0 had ignored the role of natural

resour+es

(hough a++used of besto,ing inadequate attention to natural resour+es in his

theory" ar0 a+tually ga.e mu+h more em#hasis to them than his theory suggests

on 2rst reading )ollander argued a similar #oint" but his ,or! ,as a,ed by a

narro, reading of ar0 D)ollander 1J$PE y ta!ing isolated statements and #ie+ing

them together" )ollander gi.es the im#ression of #rodu+ing a +oherent and

+om#lete re+ord of ar0s analysis )ollanderMs thesis is that ar0Ms do+trine of



immiseration strategi+ally turns u#on demogra#hy )ollander is" no doubt" +orre+t"

but only in a limited sense ar0 agreed that #o#ulation gro,th" in and of itself" ,ill

#robably ha.e a detrimental e4e+t on ,or!ersQ ,elfare"

+eteris #aribus (his 2nal quali2er is e0+eedingly im#ortant %f +ourse" other things

,ere not equal for ar0 Note *ngelsQ analysis of the lesson to be dra,n fromar0Qs analysis of #o#ulationH “No, ar0 has #ro.ed in detail in Ca#ital that the

la,s regulating ,ages are +om#li+ated" that sometimes one #redominates and

sometimes another" a++ording to +ir+umstan+es" that therefore they are in no sense

iron but on the +ontrary .ery elasti+" and that the matter +an by no means be

dismissed in a fe, ,ordsL D*ngels to ebel" ar+h 1$-B$" 1$7=" in ar0 and *ngels

1J7=+" B7PE In fa+t" ar0s .ery +om#le0 analysis of the nature of the labor mar!et

#ro.ides a model of ho, s+ar+ity" in general" should be analyed %b.iously" the

natural in+rease in #o#ulation adds to the su##ly of labor (he su##ly of labor +an

also be

augmented by dra,ing u#on di4erent segments of the #o#ulation

ar0s ta0onomy of the reser.e army of the unem#loyed des+ribes this #ro+ess in

great detail In addition" the demogra#hi+s of the labor mar!et ,ere sub3e+t to

substantial so+ial +ontrol *nglish +a#ital +ould in+rease or de+rease its

labor su##ly at ,ill by +ontrolling the s#igot of Irish labor Dsee :erelman 1J77" +h

1BE (his realiation #rom#ted ar0 to ,rite to *ngels" “(he *nglish ,or!ing +lass

,ill ne.er a+hie.e anything before

it has gotten rid of IrelandL Dar0 to *ngels" >e+ember 1K" 1$6J" in ar0 and *ngels

1J7=+" B1$E In addition" +a#ital +ould and did regulate its labor su##ly by the

degree of en+ouragement that it ga.e to #rimiti.e a++umulation or emigration Dsee

:erelman 1J$GE In short" be+ause of his method of reading ar0" )ollander

+onfuses #artial and general equilibrium in ar0Ms analysis I am +on.in+ed that one

+ould +arry )ollanderMs method to absurd lengths A diligent reader +ould sele+t and

organie hundreds or e.en thousands of e0- tra+ts from ar0 that" ,hen ta!en

together" ,ould a##ear to be a most +on.entional" +onser.ati.e +om#endium of

#oliti+al e+onomy Su+h a ,or! ,ould a++urately ree+t elements of ar0Qs analysis

but the sum of these #arts ,ould amount to +onsiderably less than the ,hole What

ma!es ar0s ,or! so .aluable is the manner in ,hi+h he ,as able to in+or#orate

the di4erent #ie+es of +lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy into a body of analysis that

+hallenged +lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy In short" )ollanders ,or! ree+ts ar0s+olle+tion of the #arts of

+lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy ,ithout demonstrating any +ons+iousness of the +onte0t

in ,hi+h these #arts ,ere #la+ed



MARX AND POPULATION

(he stan+e ar0 ado#ted to,ard the la, of #o#ulation +an be brief- ly summaried

In the 2rst #la+e" he em#hasied that “?an abstra+t la, of #o#ulation e0ists only for

#lants and animals and e.en then only in

the absen+e of any histori+al inter.ention by man' Dar0 1J77" 7$PE Ne.ertheless"

#o#ulation +ertainly does e0ert a large inuen+e in those so+ieties ,ith largely

underde.elo#ed #o,ers +ons+iously to af- fe+t the en.ironment Dsee ar0 1J7G

P$6/ ar0 and *ngels 1$P=-P6" GGE ar0 and *ngels e.en e0#lained the di.ision of

labor in terms of #o#ulation in+rease As so+iety de.elo#s the means to manage its

en- .ironment more e4e+ti.ely" ho,e.er" the gro,th of #o#ulation and it im#a+t are

in+reasingly determined by so+ial relations nder the +a#italist mode of #rodu+tion"

an histori+ally s#e+i2+ Lla, of #o#ulationL +omes into #lay" one that is bound u#

,ith the

Critique of :oliti+al *+onomy and of Ca#ital" refer to his ,or!s in terms su+h as “a

.i+tory for our :artyL Dar0 to Weydemeyer" February 1" 1$=J" in ar0 and *ngels

1J7=K" 1K6E and as an attem#t “to raise the :arty as high as #ossibleL Dar0 to

ugelmann" %+tober 11" 1$67" in ar0 1JGP" =KE

ar0 had other reasons to a.oid a dire+t +onfrontation ,ith althusianism )is

analysis of the labor theory of .alue ,as di5+ult enough to e0#lain in its o,n terms

Im#ortant +ategories" su+h as rent" had to be #ut o4 until the third .olume of

Ca#ital (o ha.e broa+hed as emotional a sub3e+t as althusianism in the 2rst

.olume +ould ha.e been a #edagogi+al mista!e (hus to ans,er althus and

althusianism entailed a +ons+ious #oliti+al +hoi+e 9i.en the situation in 9ermany

alluded to abo.e ar0 ,as reti+ent to laun+h an all-out atta+! on the la, of#o#ulation

(his ta+ti+ has +aused serious misinter#retations of ar0s ,or!s *.en today"

unsym#atheti+ readers +ommonly assume that be+ause only labor +reates .alue

,ithin the +onte0t of the labor theory of .alue" ar0 had ignored the role of natural

resour+es

(hough a++used of besto,ing inadequate attention to natural resour+es in his

theory" ar0 a+tually ga.e mu+h more em#hasis to them than his theory suggests

on 2rst reading )ollander argued a similar #oint" but his ,or! ,as a,ed by a

narro, reading of ar0 D)ollander 1J$PE y ta!ing isolated statements and #ie+ingthem together" )ollander gi.es the im#ression of #rodu+ing a +oherent and

+om#lete re+ord of ar0s analysis )ollanderMs thesis is that ar0Ms do+trine of

immiseration strategi+ally turns u#on demogra#hy )ollander is" no doubt" +orre+t"

but only in a limited sense ar0 agreed that #o#ulation gro,th" in and of itself" ,ill

#robably ha.e a detrimental e4e+t on ,or!ersQ ,elfare"



+eteris #aribus (his 2nal quali2er is e0+eedingly im#ortant %f +ourse" other things

,ere not equal for ar0 Note *ngelsQ analysis of the lesson to be dra,n from

ar0Qs analysis of #o#ulationH “No, ar0 has #ro.ed in detail in Ca#ital that the

la,s regulating ,ages are +om#li+ated" that sometimes one #redominates and

sometimes another" a++ording to +ir+umstan+es" that therefore they are in no sense

iron but on the +ontrary .ery elasti+" and that the matter +an by no means bedismissed in a fe, ,ordsL D*ngels to ebel" ar+h 1$-B$" 1$7=" in ar0 and *ngels

1J7=+" B7PE In fa+t" ar0s .ery +om#le0 analysis of the nature of the labor mar!et

#ro.ides a model of ho, s+ar+ity" in general" should be analyed %b.iously" the

natural in+rease in #o#ulation adds to the su##ly of labor (he su##ly of labor +an

also be augmented by dra,ing u#on di4erent segments of the #o#ulation

ar0s ta0onomy of the reser.e army of the unem#loyed des+ribes this #ro+ess in

great detail In addition" the demogra#hi+s of the labor mar!et ,ere sub3e+t to

substantial so+ial +ontrol *nglish +a#ital +ould in+rease or de+rease its

labor su##ly at ,ill by +ontrolling the s#igot of Irish labor Dsee :erelman 1J77" +h1BE (his realiation #rom#ted ar0 to ,rite to *ngels" “(he *nglish ,or!ing +lass

,ill ne.er a+hie.e anything before

it has gotten rid of IrelandL Dar0 to *ngels" >e+ember 1K" 1$6J" in ar0 and *ngels

1J7=+" B1$E In addition" +a#ital +ould and did regulate its labor su##ly by the

degree of en+ouragement that it ga.e to #rimiti.e a++umulation or emigration Dsee

:erelman 1J$GE In short" be+ause of his method of reading ar0" )ollander

+onfuses #artial and general equilibrium in ar0Ms analysis I am +on.in+ed that one

+ould +arry )ollanderMs method to absurd lengths A diligent reader +ould sele+t and

organie hundreds or e.en thousands of e0- tra+ts from ar0 that" ,hen ta!en

together" ,ould a##ear to be a most +on.entional" +onser.ati.e +om#endium of#oliti+al e+onomy Su+h a ,or! ,ould a++urately ree+t elements of ar0Qs analysis

but the sum of these #arts ,ould amount to +onsiderably less than the ,hole What

ma!es ar0s ,or! so .aluable is the manner in ,hi+h he ,as able to in+or#orate

the di4erent #ie+es of +lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy into a body of analysis that

+hallenged +lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy In short" )ollanders ,or! ree+ts ar0s

+olle+tion of the #arts of

+lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy ,ithout demonstrating any +ons+iousness of the +onte0t

in ,hi+h these #arts ,ere #la+ed

MARX AND POPULATION

(he stan+e ar0 ado#ted to,ard the la, of #o#ulation +an be brief- ly summaried

In the 2rst #la+e" he em#hasied that “?an abstra+t la, of #o#ulation e0ists only for

#lants and animals and e.en then only in



the absen+e of any histori+al inter.ention by man' Dar0 1J77" 7$PE Ne.ertheless"

#o#ulation +ertainly does e0ert a large inuen+e in those so+ieties ,ith largely

underde.elo#ed #o,ers +ons+iously to af- fe+t the en.ironment Dsee ar0 1J7G

P$6/ ar0 and *ngels 1$P=-P6" GGE ar0 and *ngels e.en e0#lained the di.ision of

labor in terms of #o#ulation in+rease As so+iety de.elo#s the means to manage its

en- .ironment more e4e+ti.ely" ho,e.er" the gro,th of #o#ulation and it im#a+t arein+reasingly determined by so+ial relations nder the +a#italist mode of #rodu+tion"

an histori+ally s#e+i2+ Lla, of #o#ulationL ?@

A fe, #ages later" in a se+tion" entitled “(he :rogressi.e :rodu+- tion of a ;elati.e

Sur#lus :o#ulation or Industrial ;eser.e Army"L ar0 alluded to althus less

obliquely )e had been #ressing his theory that the in+rease in +onstant +a#ital

redu+es the demand for .ariable +a#italH “(he ,or!ing #o#ulation therefore

#rodu+es both the a++umulation of +a#ital and the means by ,hi+h it is itself made

relati.ely su#eruous (his is a la, of #o#ulation #e+uliar to the

+a#italist mode of #rodu+tionL Dar0 1J77" 7$PE ar0 then +ontinued ,ith the#re.iously +ited ideasH “An abstra+t la, of #o#ulation e0ists only for #lants and

animals and e.en then only in the absen+e of any histori+al inter.ention by manL

Dibid" 7$P/ em#hasis addedE althus is mentioned only t,i+e in this +ha#ter %n

one o++asion" ar0 ,rote"

“*.en althus re+ognies that a sur#lus #o#ulation is a ne+essity of modern

industryL Dar0 1J77" 7$7E %n the other o++asion" the referen+e to althus is

+ontained in a long footnote that begins “If the reader thin!s at this #oint of althus

I ,ould remind him that this ,or! in its 2rst form is nothing more than a

s+hoolboyish #lagiarismL Dibid" 766E

ON THE IMPORTANCE OF SCARCITY

For ar0 the s#e+tor of althusianism had to be e0or+ised at all +osts 8et s+ar+ity

,as still an im#ortant +onsideration In an e4ort to ans,er althus on+e and for all"

ar0 fell into the #ra+ti+e of using his +ategory of +onstant +a#ital" ,hi+h he

understood to be se.erely limited" if not outright ,rong Dsee Cha#ter =E )ad he

merely demonstrated the eynesian lesson that the mar!et +ould +reate

unem#loyment and #o.erty" he ,ould ha.e been more su+- +essful )ad he sho,n

that the +ombination of re+urrent +rises and s+ar- +ities +an +ause so mu+h hardshi#

for the ,or!ing +lass/ that the u#rooing of traditional so+ieties faster than they

+ould be in+or#orated into the labor mar!ets ensures #o.erty for a large #ortion of

the ,or!ing +lass/ that +a#ital requires #o.erty and unem#loyment to maintain a

tra+table labor su##ly" his +ontribution ,ould ha.e been unquestioned Instead"

un,illing to +on+ede any ground to althus" ar0 refused to admit the +on+e#t of



s+ar+ity dire+tly in +ha#ter =" .olume 1 of Ca#ital )e e.en failed to address the

,ides#read hardshi# brought on by the Cotton Famine in this +ha#ter" e0+e#t for

dating s#e+i2+ e.ents )is analysis of te+hnologi+al unem#loyment ,as e0+essi.ely

me+hani+al" almost undiale+ti+al e+ause this +ha#ter" in s#ite of its undeniable

im#ortan+e" ,as a,ed" it detra+ted from the rest of his ,or! :erha#s sensing its

short+omings" ar0" ,hose boo! had #re.iously e.ol.ed in a .ery )egelian fashionDsee Cha#ter PE abru#tlyturned to his se+tion on #rimiti.e a++umulation +ontaining

his analysis

of e.olution of +a#italist agri+ulture S+ar+ity" for ar0" ,as an im#ortant +ategory"

,ith substantial theoreti+al and #oliti+al im#li+ations Consequently" he treated it

Do.erlyE +autiously" so mu+h so that he su##ressed it altogether in his$ most dire+t

analysis of althus in his +ha#ter" “(he 9eneral &a, of Ca#italist A++umulationL

%f +ourse" one might ,ell res#ond that the Cotton Famine ,as an o++urren+e unique

to the #eriod of the S Ci.il War %ne +annot raise s+ar+ity to a ma3or theoreti+al

status on the basis of ar0s referen+es to an indi.idual e.ent of more than a+entury ago

ee# in mind that ar0 did not e0#li+itly assert the im#ortan+e of +otton Oust the

o##ositeT Cotton" or e.en resour+e s+ar+ity" ty#i+ally a##ears in his ,or! as an

e0am#le of a more general #rin+i#le" one ,hi+h is a##arently unrelated to natural

resour+e s+ar+ity (hus" the signi2+an+e of ar0s dis+ussion of the Cotton Famine is

that he did not em#hasie its im#ortan+e Instead he under#layed it

ar0 a##arently did not feel free to assert dire+tly that shortages of ra, materials

,ere res#onsible for +rises (o ta!e that #osition ,ould #lay into the hands of the

althusians ;ather than ris! getting bogged do,n in debates that he ho#ed toa.oid" he used .ery abstra+t +ategories that seemed to ha.e little to do ,ith natural

resour+e s+ar+ity" e.en ,hen addressing the momentous im#a+t of the Cotton

Famine

For ar0" ra, materials shortages ree+ted the inability of +a#ital to master the

en.ironment )e ,as +on2dent that under so+ialism su+h #roblems +ould be

o.er+ome" but the s#e+i2+s of that .i+tory +ould not be gi.en in detail %ther,ise"

he ,ould ha.e to begin a series of endless debates about the s#e+i2+s of the

a##ro#riate form of so+ialist organiation (hat sort of a+ti.ity +ould only di.ert

energies from more im#ortant tas!s (he “hidden so+ialist tenden+yL ,ould ha.e to

remain hidden ,ithin the formulae of the rising organi+ +om#osition of +a#ital (heinability of +a#ital to obtain a su5+ient su##ly of ra, materials +an e0#lain the

rising organi+ +om#osition of +a#ital" 3ust as easily as the in+reasing relian+e on

hea.y ma+hinery Oudging by ar0s e0am#les" e0#ansion in the organi+

+om#osition of +a#ital ,as" to a great e0tent" the result of the lagging #rodu+ti.ity

of +otton ?@'



Cuestionario Adam Smith

1E U>e que temas trata #rin+i#almente el +a#Vtulo $ de la riquea de las

na+iones" de Adam Smith

BE *l traba3ador re+ibir su salario" y se le dar lo que sea que #rodu3o +omo

ganan+ia e0tra@ .erdadero" o falso

GE &as +ondi+iones de alianas entre em#resas grandes y los #re+ios ba3os"

afe+tan a la so+iedad/ y de3an de haber em#leos dis#onibles" +ausando

menos dinero y ms #roblemas e+onXmi+os U<uY #asa +uando un #aVs no

tiene su2+ientes lugares #ara satisfa+er la demanda de em#leados

PE SegZn Smith" U<uY ha+e un em#leador +uando hay abundan+ia de materias

#rimas Dno es+aseE

=E U:or quY es im#ortante que las riqueas de un #aVs se utili+en" y es terrible

de3arlas aisladas[ahorradas

6E U<uY habr ms" una es+ase en fueras #rodu+ti.as" o una es+ase en la

+a#a+idad de darle em#leos a los traba3adores 8 segZn Smith" UCXmo estoafe+ta a las na+iones y su desarrollo de riqueas

7E SegZn Smith U#or quY hay es+ase

$E :ara Smith" U*s im#ortante +onsiderar la Yti+a en el #ro+eso de la riquea de

las na+iones



JE *n la Y#o+a en la que Smith es+ribiX la riquea de las na+iones" U:or quY fue

una teorVa e+onXmi+a tras+endental

1KE UCXmo rela+iona Adam Smith su teorVa e+onXmi+a +on la es+ase de

re+ursos

11E UCXmo rela+ionas la teorVa e+onXmi+a de Smith +on la que se utilia en

la a+tualidad

1BE Smith" el llamado #adre de la e+onomVa" inuen+iX los traba3os de

mu+hos autores e+onXmi+amente liberales" y fue refutado #or mu+hos

autores que a#oyaban el so+ialismo De3 ar0E U:or quY

1GE EXTRA 2: Después de leer la teoría de Marx, Malthus, y Smith

!u"l es la rela!i#n m"s importante de entre ellas$



Cuestionario Teoría Malthusianista:

1E UCul es el #roblema que althus ha +onsiderado ser siem#re #resente en la

historia de la humanidad

BE UCundo althus men+iona que siem#re ha habido una bZsqueda #or el

#rogreso y el futuro del #rogreso humano" #or quY esto es im#ortante #ara su

teorVa

GE UCXmo +re+en demogr2+amente las #obla+iones humanas

PE UCXmo +re+e los re+ursos" en es#e+ial los alimentos en las so+iedades

humanas

=E UCul es la #remisa ms im#ortante de la teorVa de althus" y #orque se

rela+iona +on el +re+imiento de re+ursos

6E UCXmo di+e althus que las +ostumbres so+iales" sobre todo las de modales

en #are3a" afe+ta al rendimiento #obla+ional en+iona un #aVs +omo

e3em#lo

7E U:or quY la #rodu++iXn del alimento +re+e de manera lineal y #or quY no es

#osible lograr que +re+a realmente de manera e0#onen+ial

$E SegZn althus" a tra.Ys de la historia UCXmo ha +ambiado[e.olu+ionado la

distribu+iXn alimentarVa en las so+iedades

JE :ara athus" U*s im#ortante el +ontrol de #obla+iXn Si asV lo es" U#or quY esim#ortante mantener la #obla+iXn +ontrolada

1KE UCXmo inuye la Yti+a en la teorVa de athus

11E &a teorVa althusianista ha deri.ado teorVas y #olVti+as demogr2+as

alrededor del mundo" men+iona una so+iedad o un #aVs que re+ientemente ha

im#uesto una teorVa de limita+iXn demogr2+a DSiendo que la teorVa de

athus men+iona limita+iXn de #obla+iXn naturalE

1BE en+iona otra #obla+iXn donde la teorVa neomalthusianista e0ista

D&imitar la #obla+iXn arti2+ialmenteE

1GE U:or quY es im#ortante +ono+er la teorVa de althus al hablar de la

es+ase de re+ursos

1PE EXTRA %: Después de leer la teoría de Marx y Malthus, !u"l es

la rela!i#n m"s importante de entre ellas$



(eorVa de ar0



Keynes, +. M. -/01. 2eoría (eneral del empleo, el inter)s y el dinero.

2he 3u!lic4s 5i!rary and 6i(ital Archie. n.d.1. 7ollectiization and

8ndustrialization. 9ecuperado el /: de ;oiem!re del <:-< de=

http=>>???.i!i!lio.or(>expo>soiet.exhi!it>collect.html

Malthus, 2. -@*1. An Essay on the 3rinciple of 3opulation. 9ecuperado el

- de diciem!re del <:-< de de Medellin.(o=

http=>>???.medellindi(ital.(o.co>Mediateca>repositorioB<:de

B<:recursos>Malthus,B<:2homas>MalthusC2homasDAnB<:EssayB<:on

B<:theB<:3rincipleB<:ofB<:3opulation.pdf

Smith, A -@@01. An 8n$uiry into the ;ature and 7auses of the ealth of

;ations. 9ecuperado el - de diciem!re del <:-< de=

http=>>(eoli!.com>smith.adam>?on-D:*.html

Marx, K. -*FF1. Marx4s 7rises 2heory= Scarcity, 5a!or, and "inance.

9ecuperado el - de diciem!re del <:-< de 6i(amo "ree=

htt#H[[digamofreefr[#erel$7B#df

http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/soviet.exhibit/collect.html

http://www.medellindigital.gov.co/Mediateca/repositorio%20de%20recursos/Malthus,%20Thomas/Malthus_Thomas-An%20Essay%20on%20the%20Principle%20of%20Population.pdf



http://geolib.com/smith.adam/won1-08.html

http://digamo.free.fr/perel872.pdf




http://geolib.com/smith.adam/won1-08.html

http://digamo.free.fr/perel872.pdf

http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/soviet.exhibit/collect.html

Cuestionarios Economía

Documents

Transcript of Cuestionarios Economía