医学部医学科2年 免疫学講義 10/27/2016 - Kurume U医学部医学科2年 免疫学講義 10/27/2016第9章-1: 体液性免疫応答 久留米大学医学部免疫学准教授
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库 - CORE · iii 厦门大学学位论文著作权使用声明...
Transcript of 厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库 - CORE · iii 厦门大学学位论文著作权使用声明...
学校编码:10384 密级
学号:30420141154545
硕 士 学 位 论 文
城市化及其对沿海城市雅加达的社会生态可
持续性的影响评估
Assessing Urbanization and Its Impact on Social-Ecological
Sustainability of Coastal Urban Jakarta, Indonesia
Imanda Hikmat Pradana
指导教师姓名:薛雄志 教授专 业 名 称:海 洋 事 务论文提交日期:2016 年 5月论文答辩时间:2016 年 5月
2016 年 5 月
城市
化及其对
沿海城
市雅加
达的社会生
态可
持续性的
影响评估
Imanda Hi
kmatPradana
指导教
师薛雄
志厦门
大学
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
ii
厦门大学学位论文原创性声明
本人呈交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下,独立完成的研究成果。
本人在论文写作中参考其他个人或集体已经发表的研究成果,均在文中
以适当方式明确标明,并符合法律规范和《厦门大学研究生学术活动规
范(试行)》。
另外,该学位论文为( )课题(组)
的研究成果,获得( )课题(组)经费或实验室的资
助,在( )实验室完成。(请在以上括号内填写课题
或课题组负责人或实验室名称,未有此项声明内容的,可以不作特别声
明。)
声明人(签名):
年 月 日
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
iii
厦门大学学位论文著作权使用声明
本人同意厦门大学根据《中华人民共和国学位条例暂行实施办法》
等规定保留和使用此学位论文,并向主管部门或其指定机构送交学位论
文(包括纸质版和电子版),允许学位论文进入厦门大学图书馆及其数
据库被查阅、借阅。本人同意厦门大学将学位论文加入全国博士、硕士
学位论文共建单位数据库进行检索,将学位论文的标题和摘要汇编出
版,采用影印、缩印或者其它方式合理复制学位论文。
本学位论文属于:
( )1.经厦门大学保密委员会审查核定的保密学位论文,于
年 月 日解密,解密后适用上述授权。
( )2.不保密,适用上述授权。
(请在以上相应括号内打“√”或填上相应内容。保密学位论文应是
已经厦门大学保密委员会审定过的学位论文,未经厦门大学保密委员会
审定的学位论文均为公开学位论文。此声明栏不填写的,默认为公开学
位论文,均适用上述授权。)
声明人(签名):
年 月
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
i
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................i
List of Tables..................................................................................................................... iii
List of Figures....................................................................................................................iv
Abbreviation .......................................................................................................................v
摘 要..................................................................................................................................vii
Abstract........................................................................................................................... viii
Chapter 1 Introduction..................................................................................1
1.1 Research Background...............................................................................................................1
1.2 Research Area ............................................................................................................................3
1.3 Research Objectives .................................................................................................................5
1.4 Research Significance ..............................................................................................................6
1.5 Thesis Framework .....................................................................................................................6
Chapter 2 Addressing the Impact of Urbanization towards Complex
Coastal Urban Social-Ecological System.....................................................8
2.1 Overview of Social-Ecological System ................................................................................8
2.1.1 Coastal Social-Ecological System .....................................................................11
2.1.2 Urban Social-Ecological System .......................................................................12
2.2 Overview of Urbanization in Jakarta ..................................................................................14
2.2.1 Jabodetabek: Result of Urbanization Spillover..................................................16
2.2.2 Urbanization Impacts toward Coastal Urban Jakarta.........................................17
2.3 Addressing Urbanization Impact Using Modified DPSIR Coupled with
Social-Ecological Concept ...........................................................................................................19
2.3.1 Data Collection & Analysis ...............................................................................21
2.4 Result of DPSIR Analysis .....................................................................................................21
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
ii
2.4.1 Driver .................................................................................................................21
2.4.2 Pressure ..............................................................................................................27
2.4.3 State....................................................................................................................32
2.4.4 Impact ................................................................................................................34
2.4.5 Response ............................................................................................................37
2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................41
Chapter 3 Assessing Social-Ecological Sustainability Trends in Coastal
Urban Jakarta ..............................................................................................42
3.1 Introduction: Overview of Sustainable Development .....................................................42
3.1.1 Measuring Sustainability ...................................................................................43
3.2 Assessing Social-Ecological Sustainability Trends Using Composite Indicators .....44
3.2.1 Composite Indicators .........................................................................................44
3.2.2 Determining Indicators and Sub-Indicators .......................................................44
3.2.3 Normalisation.....................................................................................................45
3.2.4 Weighting ...........................................................................................................46
3.2.5 Aggregation........................................................................................................47
3.3 Result and Discussion ............................................................................................................48
3.3.1 Ecological Sustainability Trends........................................................................48
3.3.2 Social Sustainability Trends...............................................................................52
3.3.3 Social-Ecological Causal Relationship Based on DPSIR..................................55
3.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................58
Chapter 4 Conclusion and Recommendation............................................60
4.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................60
4.2 Recommendation.....................................................................................................................61
References .........................................................................................................................63
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................78
Appendix...........................................................................................................................79
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
iii
List of Tables
Table 3-1 Social & Ecological Indicators and Sub-Indicators...........................................46
Table 3-2 Social & Ecological Indicators and Sub-Indicators Weight ..............................48
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
iv
List of Figures
Fig. 1-1 Map of Jakarta ........................................................................................................4
Fig. 1-2 Population and GDP Per Capita Growth of Jakarta ...............................................4
Fig. 1-3 Research Framework..............................................................................................7
Fig. 2-1 Social-Ecological System Concept ........................................................................9
Fig. 2-2 Modified DPSIR Model Coupled with Social-Ecological Concept.....................20
Fig. 2-3 Social-Ecological System in Jakarta Using Modified DPSIR .............................22
Fig. 2-4 Development in Jakarta from 1972-2005.............................................................25
Fig. 2-5 Number of Vehicles in Jakarta from 2001-2014 ..................................................26
Fig. 2-6 Suitability Area for Fishing in Jakarta Bay in (a) 1998 and (b) 2004 ..................34
Fig. 2-7 A Resident is Hand-pumping Groundwater in a Public Bathing Near Ciliwung
River...................................................................................................................................36
Fig. 3-1 Ecological Sustainability Trend (Pressure) ..........................................................50
Fig. 3-2 Ecological Sustainability Trend (State) ................................................................51
Fig. 3-3 Social Sustainability Trend (Driver) ....................................................................54
Fig. 3-4 Social Sustainability Trend (Impact)....................................................................55
Fig. 3-5 Aggregated Social-Ecological Sustainability Trend.............................................56
Fig. 3-6 Social-Ecological Relationship Based on DPSIR for (a) Driver towards Pressure;
(b) Pressure towards State; (c) State towards Impact.........................................................57
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
v
Abbreviation
ADB : Asian Development Bank
BAPPENAS : Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan National (National Development
Planning Agency)
BNBP : Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (Provincial Disaster
Management Agency)
BOD : Biological Oxygen Demand
BPS : Badan Pusat Statistik (Statistics Indonesia)
CDI : City Development Index
CO : Carbon Monoxide
DHF : Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
DKI : Daerah Khusus Ibukota (Special Capital Region)
DPSIR : Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response
DPSWR : Driver-Pressure-State-Welfare-Response
EEA : European Environment Agency
EF : Ecological Footprint
EPI : Environmental Performance Index
ESI : Environmental Sustainability Index
EVI : Environmental Vulnerability Index
EW : Equal Weighting
FA : Factor Analysis
GDP : Gross Domestic Product
GPI : Genuine Progress Indicator
HABITAT : The United Nations Human Settlements Programme
HDI : Human Development Index
ICZM : Integrated Coastal Zone Management
ISEW : Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare
JEDI : Jakarta Emergency Dredging Initiative
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
vi
JUTPI : Jabodetabek Urban Transportation Policy Integration
LPI : Living Planet Index
NCICD : National Capital Integrated Coastal Development
NGO : Non-Governmental Organization
NO2 : Nitrogen Dioxide
OECD : Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
PALYJA : PT PAM Lyonnaise Jaya
PCA : Principal Component Analysis
PROKASIH : Program Kali Bersih (Clean River Program)
SES : Social-Ecological System
SLHD : Status Lingkungan Hidup Daerah (Regional Environmental Status)
SO2 : Sulphur Dioxide
UNCED : United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UN : United Nations
UNESCO : United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
WWF : World Wildlife Fund
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
vii
摘 要
本 研 究 采 用 “ 驱 动 力 — 压 力 — 状 态 — 影 响 — 响 应 ”
Driving-Pressure-State-Impact-Response(DPSIR)的概念方法来识别复杂的社会
生态系统之间的关系在沿海城市雅加达城市化过程中产生的影响。此外,提出了基
于 DPSIR 的复合指标,用来分析评估在过去十年(2005-2014)的可持续发展趋势。结
果表明,驱动力包括地下水过度开采、贫困、土地利用的变化、过度开发和过量的
交通,这些都给周围的环境带来巨大的压力,并且对社会福祉产生了影响。可持续
性可以划分为 5 个等级,分别是:差很,差,中等,好,很好。基于复合指标的评
估表明,从 2005 年到 2014 年社会和生态方面显示出轻微的下降趋势,并且可以被
认为是“很差”的可持续性水平。社会方面的价值在 2005 年是 0.7687,在 2014 年
下降到 0.2687,可持续性水平从“好”下降到“很差”。生态方面,在开始的 2005
年的价值是 0.7357,这时的等级是“好”,但是到 2014 年下降到 0.3221,被认为
是“很差”。进一步的测试显示,在社会-生态系统中,DPSIR 模型的每个变量彼此
都存在正相关关系。结果表明,越来越大的城市化的压力对环境和社会福祉都产生
了不利的影响。研究结果可以为决策者提供参考,用于缓解城市化对雅加达造成的
负面影响,同时作为一种长期的解决方案来处理引起高城市化率的驱动因素。
关键词:DPSIR;复合指标;社会-生态系统;可持续性;雅加达;城市化
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
viii
Abstract
This study adopted the concept of Driving-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR)
approach to identify the relationship of complex social-ecological system in a coastal
urban setting of Jakarta as an impact of urbanization. Furthermore, a composite indicators
was proposed based on DPSIR analysis to assess the sustainability trends within the last
decade (2005-2014). Results show that driving forces include excess groundwater
extraction, poverty, land-use change, excess development, and excess transportation put
significant pressures to the surrounding environment and have an impact to social
well-being. The sustainability level is determined by five different levels (bad, poor,
medium, good, excellent). Assessment based on composite indicators suggests that social
and ecological aspect show a decreasing trend from 2005 to 2014 and can be considered
as ‘poor’ sustainability level. The social aspect stands at the value of 0.7687 in 2005 and
decreased to 0.2687 in 2014, from ‘good’ sustainability to ‘poor’ sustainability. For
ecological aspect, at the start of 2005 the value was 0.7357 which is ‘good’ but decreased
to 0.3221 in 2014 which is considered ‘poor’. Further test revealed that each variable of
DPSIR has positive correlation with one another within the social-ecological relationship.
The results indicate that increasing urbanization has put disadvantages both to
environment and also social well-being. The results can be taken as considerations for
decision-makers to look for solutions that will ease the negative impacts of urbanization
in Jakarta, with more focus on the long-term solutions to address main driving factors
causing high urbanization rate.
Key Words: DPSIR, Composite Indicators, Social-Ecological System, Sustainability,
Jakarta, Urbanization
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
1
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Research Background
The lure of better economic condition and better life have pushed people to migrate
into cities, hence the term urbanization. Since then, its rapid development has created a
phenomena in which cities becomes more crowded than ever before. Today over half the
world’s population resides in urban area. A significant fraction (9.9%) of the world’s
population lives in megacities, usually defined as cities or urban agglomerations
(including so-called larger urban zones) with more than 10 million inhabitants, and
predicted to reach 13.6% by 2025 (UN, 2012). Geographically speaking, this urbanization
process has also long been associated with coastal areas, in which 67% of all megacities
are located at the coast and 80% had coastal influence (Von Glasow et al., 2013). Coastal
areas provide range of direct benefits for society such as food and shelter provision,
pollutant filter, and nursery grounds for a wide variety of organisms. It also provide
critical inputs for industry, including water and space for shipping and ports;
opportunities for recreational activities such as fishing and diving; and other raw
materials including salt and sand (Creel, 2003).
The resulting developments of these megacities by urbanization has resulted in the
increasing income for the people as they climb the socio-economic ladder to the
middle-class. The success stories of people by moving into cities have resulted in cities
becoming more crowded as thousands of migrants move into cities everyday. While
urbanization has its strengths such as promoting economic development and having
higher productivity, it also has drawbacks, most notably towards the environment,
especially in coastal areas (Krank et al., 2009).
Urbanization has led to degradation of environmental quality especially the quality of
water, air and noise. In many coastal areas, rapid population growth and all the activities
associated with it can degrade coastal and marine ecosystems. A number of worrying
trends are already visible. In some areas, heavy use of fisheries has reduced endemic
coastal fish stocks from 10% to 30% of the supply that existed 30 years ago. Half of the
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
Chapter 1 Introduction
2
world’s wetlands disappeared in the 20th century, also 50% of all mangroves, and nearly
60% of the world’s coral reefs are seriously degraded by human activities (Creel, 2003).
Most do not realize that by destroying the ecosystem, they are also destroying the
ecological cycle that sustain their life. This human-environment relationship can be
explained as a Social-Ecological System (SES) (Ostrom, 2009), a system where social
system interacting with and depending on an ecological substrate and whose survival
depends, among others, on its interrelations with the system of natural resources.
However, this social-ecological system is usually studied where a social system is directly
linked to natural resources. Therefore references for social-ecological system in cities
–where most of its inhabitants do not directly relate to its surrounding natural resources–
are limited.
Managing urbanization pressures in coastal cities is difficult because those regions
encompass many physical, social and regulatory divisions. In addition, multiple
competing economic sectors, including tourism, fishing, agriculture, aquaculture, forestry,
manu-facturing, oil and gas extraction, marine transportation, and real estate development
have interests in coastal zones. Governments usually manage each sector separately, if at
all. Consequently, many coastal nations have experienced rapid uncontrolled development
along their coastlines. If it continues, then eventually natural resources will be depleted
and it will be impossible to sustain future generations (Creel, 2003).
It was the 1987 Brundtland Report that popularized the term ‘Sustainable
Development’ as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (UN, 1987). It changed the
interpretation of the word development, and helped scientists and practitioners to
understand not only the environmental impacts but also the social and economic effects of
projects as the human race interacts with its surroundings. Society, economy and the
environment, as the three pillars of sustainability, pose three characteristics: independency,
inter-relation/inter-connection, and equality. Based on those characteristics, an alternative
definition for sustainable development is stated as the path to balance social, economic,
and environmental needs (Poveda & Lipsett, 2011).
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
Chapter 1 Introduction
3
Progress has been made in sustainability assessment. Finding the appropriate
assessment instrument is critical to match theory with practice, and to have successful
outcomes in improving sustainability. Although the existing mechanisms for assessment
offer useful alternatives for academics and practitioners, clear answers for questions
remain to be found regarding what measures are important and how they can be
quantified, especially for social and economic dimenstions (Poveda & Lipsett, 2011).
Currently, there are various assessment tools to measure sustainability, depending on the
situation and condition of the objectives.
1.2 Research Area
Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, is located in the northwest of the Java island at the
Java Sea coastline. Even though the city, also known as DKI (Daerah Khusus Ibukota –
Special Capital Region) Jakarta, accommodated just about 9.9 million inhabitants, the
Jakarta metropolitan region Jabodetabek (Jakarta-Bogor-Depok-Tangerang-Bekasi) is
estimated to house 27.95 million people (Jakarta in Figures, 2011). The core of Jakarta is
composed of five municipalities, namely North Jakarta, East Jakarta, South Jakarta, West
Jakarta and Central Jakarta. (Fig. 1-1).
This coastal megacity can be classified as a second stage megacity according to the
categories proposed by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), and shows steady increase
of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) over the years since the 1997 Asian financial crisis.
Housing significant industries like textiles, electrical equipment, cement, plastics, metal
and glass products, transport equipment, printing, publishing, an most notably finance
industry have made Jakarta an attractive option for job seekers (Krank et al., 2009). The
fast growth of economy has not only entailed a high GDP growth rate, but also
accelerated high migration rates, urban sprawl, a shortfall of the urban infrastructure and
further stress of the ecological environment. The demographic and GDP growth of Jakarta
can be seen in Fig. 1-2.
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
Chapter 1 Introduction
4
Fig. 1-1 Map of Jakarta
(source: Jakarta in Figures, 2014)
Figure 1-2. Population and GDP Per Capita Growth of Jakarta
(source: Jakarta in Figures, 2005-2014)
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
Chapter 1 Introduction
5
Jakarta is currently experiencing various problems regarding its coastal location,
namely: coastal littering, water pollution, saltwater instrusion, land subsidence, seafood
contamination and the loss of habitat for marine organisms. Other chronic landward
problems such as deforestation that causes flooding, excessive use of fertilizer that
causes eutrophication, and high air pollution due to congested roads also worsen the
situtation as well. The Jakarta Bay has become a huge waste dump and therefore put
tremendous pressure for nature to compensate excessive human activities.
An example is the 13 rivers that intersect the city causes annual flooding. Widespread
flooding ocurred in 1996, 2002 and 2007, inundating up to 40% of the city. Increasing
population pressure and soil subsidence (10 cm/year or more) of areas already under
mean sea level lead to an autonomous increase of flood risk. Additionally, all the rivers
in Jakarta relatively are heavily polluted as they consistently show high Biological
Oxygen Demand (BOD) readings. The sources of these BOD in Jakarta’s River system
originate from industrial and other waste water, solid waste, and domestic sewage (Apip
et al., 2015). These polluted water will eventually end up in Jakarta Bay, degrading the
coastal environment. Without proper plans, and coordination and actions for coastal
environmental management, Jakarta will have difficulties to sustain for the future.
1.3 Research Objectives
Based on the background information that was collected from various sources, it is
indicated that over the years the city of Jakarta is undergoing changes in terms of
economic, social and ecological aspects. These changes are supposedly meant to occur
in a sustainable way, in which one aspect should not be ignored for the growth of other
aspects. In order to achieve a sustainable coastal urban development, it is imperative to
plan and monitor closely the causal relationship of social ecological system, apart from
economic development. It is for these reasons that prompted the following research
objectives:
i. To identify social ecological relationship and indicators of coastal urban area as
impacts of urbanization using a modified coupled framework of DPSIR
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库
Degree papers are in the “Xiamen University Electronic Theses and
Dissertations Database”.
Fulltexts are available in the following ways:
1. If your library is a CALIS member libraries, please log on
http://etd.calis.edu.cn/ and submit requests online, or consult the interlibrary
loan department in your library.
2. For users of non-CALIS member libraries, please mail to [email protected]
for delivery details.
厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库