Forjado de Materiales

8/14/2019 Forjado de Materiales

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FORJADO DE MATERIALES

Precision Forging: Part One

Extracto:Precision forging is a clear and progressive approach to forming. With a range oftechniques it is possible to economically produce the smallest parts to massive industrialparts for large scale manufacturing.With the additional control and accuracy achievable through precision forming techniquesit is possible to attain a range of cost and quality advantages.

Today, systematically designed forging processes are being performed in controlled presses and hammers toproduce forged shapes with a high degree of dimensional accuracy and structural integrity. Forgings range insie from very small, weighing only a few grams, such as the parts shown in Figure !"a, to componentproducts weighed in tons, such as the #$%,%%% pound generator shaft Figure !"b.

Figure 1:a& The forging process is capable of economically producing very small parts in large quantities b&This #$%,%%% pound generator shaft was produced from an open die forging

The term forging is applied to several processes in which a piece of metal is shaped to the desired form byplastic deformation of a simple starting form such as bar, billet, bloom or ingot. The energy that causes


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deformation is applied by a hammer, press, upsetter or ring roller, either alone or in combination. The shape isimparted by the tools that contact the wor'piece and by careful control of applied energy.(n the process of forging metal, there are a variety of techniques utilied, depending on the needs for theproduct designed and the stage of product manufacturing. Often, forging is meant to shape the metal)however, some techniques go beyond shaping. Precision forging is more of a refinement process than ashaping process. When a product is near completion, precision forging is done using e*isting forgingtechnology to refine the product to the point that little or no further machining is needed before using the

product for its intended purpose. +sually, after the precision process, final touches are done to the metalbefore either shipping or using the product in another part of the manufacturing process. (n conventionalprecision forging the material is formed at ambient temperature or in semi"hot conditions. (n the case of verycomplicated parts, a properly prepared charge is hot formed in isothermal conditions. ometimes the superplasticity of the formed material is e*ploited. (nitially, enclosed dies were used for forming. Than's to thematerial savings and the lower costs of manufacturing products with enhanced properties at competitiveprices, precision forging was increasingly applied to alloys of materials such as steel, aluminum, magnesiumand titanium.The e*pression precision forging does not mean distinct forging process but rather approach to forging. Theaim of this approach is to produce a net shape, or at least a near"net shape parts. Precision forging issometimes described as close"tolerance forging to emphasie the aim of achieving required the dimensionaland surface finish tolerances only after forging.Precision forging at ambient temperature, i.e. cold forging, is preceded by ma'ing a slug in a few hot forgingoperations. (n conventional hot forging in half dies a substantial amount of the material is lost for the flash andallowances. For this reason closed"die forging -often employing comple* formation, i.e. forward and bac'ward

e*trusion& was adopted to ma'e preforms for precision forging.*trusion forging has this advantage in that the stress is mostly tria*ial compression whereby largedeformations can be obtained without losing material cohesion. (n addition, no die drafts are used in precisionforming. The whole manufacturing process is generally divided into stages. /s an e*ample, the process ofmanufacturing a low"carbon steel product is shown in Figure 0.

Figure 2:Flowchart of precision forging process1etal bundles are delivered from a storeroom to a machine which cuts the rods into pieces with specifieddimensions and weight. Then the pieces are heated up to a temperature of about 2%%34 in an inductionfurnace. / constant process temperature must be maintained in order to ensure high quality of the forgings.Preforms heated up to a proper temperature are fed into a press where they are formed in 05$ operations.The dies are preheated to a temperature close to the operating temperature to reduce the ris' of die crac'ingas a result of thermal shoc'. The forging process lasts only a few seconds. The stability of the process andcontrol conducted according to plan ensure high quality of the forgings. When they leave the press theforgings are sub6ected to controlled cooling.Then they go to a shot peening machine where they are cleaned from graphite. The clean forgings go to cold

wor'ing where they are oiled and cold formed. (n this way the precise shape of the finished forged product isobtained. /fter cold forming the forgings are washed and greased.


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Figure 3:Products manufactured by precision forgingCost Advantages of Precision Forgings

7eduction in material input weight.Plastic deformation of base material producing grain flow in the general shape of the part providing

superior structural integrity and strength.

uperior strength in the transverse and short transverse directions.

Date Published: Oct-2012

Precision Forging: Part Two

Extracto:/mong the 'ey benefits of precision forging include a substantial waste reductionfollowing the forging process.(ts enhanced accuracy also allows for comple* multiple stage forging processes with theuse of advanced design planning tools such as F1"simulation models.

There are various techniques used in precision forging to obtain the final specifications required for the


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product. uch techniques often revolve around close tolerance"forging with the ob6ective of eliminating wastecommonly contributed by the post"forging process.7esults from the precision process usually form the metal to tolerances that e*ceed industry standards,subsequently eliminating the need to use additional machinery processes that creates wastage. 7educingsuch wastage helps to achieve an overall saving for the manufacturer, though not a saving on the particularproduct using precision forging. Other savings include creating less scrap for disposal through using lessmaterials and using less energy resources to complete the process.

8enerally e*tensive casting and machining processes are used to manufacture filigree and comple*components. 9ue to higher material usage and especially the inferior strength of casted and machined wor'pieces highly stressed components li'e gear wheels are at least rough forged and finished by machining.Precision forging is an innovative manufacturing process for highly stressable near"net"shape components. (tbelongs to the category of drop forging and is performed flash less in a closed die. (n e*ceptional casesfabrication tolerances up to (T can be achieved by precision forging.Precision forging, a sub"discipline of die forging technology, is carried out using closed dies without a flash. ;ymeans of precision forging near"net"shape high performance parts with production accuracies of up to (T -according to 9(< < !%0#="!& can be obtained. 9ue to the substitution of several soft machining processesby one forging process a reduction of production steps and processing time is achievable.Particularly in times of diminishing energy and raw material resources the high efficiency of forging processesis gaining more and more importance. Than's to the high geometric accuracy, increasingly more functionalelements can be produced as near"net"shape components by this forming technology. For this reason, theprecision forging process is often regarded as a competitor for entire production sequences and competes nolonger with only individual production processes. 4urrent research wor's deal with the realiation of precision

forging of spur and especially helical gearings.Figure ! shows a selection of parts which were precision"forged at the (nstitute of 1etal Forming and 1etal"Forming 1achines of the >eibni +niversitaet ?annover -(F+1&.

Figure 1:election of precision"forged parts -(F+1&Precision forging of gears is a near"net"shape technology, which is a distinguished manufacturing methodcharacteried by high tolerance accuracy and end contour quality. The advantages of precision forging

become especially obvious in high productivity. The most important criterion for the successful establishmentof precision forging of gears is the economical aspect. This present paper shows the advantages of using aninnovative tool system coupled with an intelligent virtual process design performed by Finite lement 1ethod-F1& simulation.


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the precision forging process the thermal and the mechanical loading rise up to the ma*imum, because of theclosed dies and high process temperatures. For this reason on this point the tribological loading and die wearreaches a ma*imum.

/ promising strategy is to reduce the wear to a minimum especially at the final stage of the forging process,where the teeth of the die are filled. Therefore the whole forging process is subdivided in three forging stepscreating overall, an innovative tool concept -Figure 0&.9uring the !stforging stage -preforming& an a*ial material flow ta'es place. The output of the ne*t stage

means that the final top and bottom contours of the gear will be realied by an a*ial and radial material flow./s a result of the radial material flow during the last forging stage = the helical teeth of the gear will beshaped.

/ further advantage of this new tool system in respect of cost"saving is the possibility to use lower"costsheared billets in place of e*pensive precision tubes as used in conventional one"stage precision forgingprocesses.

Figure 2:Three"stage tool system of the precision forging process for gears

/ virtual process design should be performed by F1"simulation, based on these requirements of theprocess.Precision forging process design using FEM-simulationF1"simulation -Finite lements 1ethod& has been established for the last few years as an effective tool fordesign and planning in the field of metal forming. (n particular for the design of comple* multiple"stage forgingprocesses the use of F1"simulation is indispensable. Therefore the focal points in this present study are:

imulation of the planned = stage precision forging process

Parameter variation and optimiation of the tool geometry

Prediction of material flow, tool loading, material state etc.

imulation of the heating process and cooling process to predict the relevant microstructure evolution

-austeniing, phase transformation&.

For forging processes and especially for precision forging processes a series of required wor'ing stepscompose a comple* process chain. Figure 0 shows the structure of the manufacturing chain of precisionforged helical gear. uch a comple* process chain starts usually with the heating processes -convective orinductive heating&, then follows the multiple"stage forging process, the heat"treatment and finally somedifferent grinding operation options.

Date Published: Nov-2012


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1etal tamping 9ies: Part One

Extracto:1etal stamping is the practice of cutting and forming metal sheet into a required contourwith the help of tool 'nown as a stamping tool.heet metal stamping is the most common method of producing metal parts in theautomotive industry because of its high production rate and low cost. (n basic sheet metalstamping, a flat metal sheet is pressed to the desired shape between a die and a punch.

1etal stamping is the practice of cutting and forming metal sheet into a required contour with the help of tool'nown as a stamping tool. heet metal components are used universally, from the regular clips to comple*computer hard drive components, all are manufactured by a precision sheet metal stamping process.tamping die design is the preliminary phase in stamping tool and die ma'ing and is carried out as soon asthe component design is finished. The stamping die drawing stage is e*tremely critical as a good quality

stamping die blueprint can generate accurate stamped components which can run for an e*tended time withless maintenance.tamping tool design calls for selecting the required metal stamping operations, basic strip layout,manufacturing processes, type of stamping presses to be used and so on. (t is necessary for a tool designerto have thorough 'nowledge of these elements to construct a fine die design. 4omputer aided designtechniques have progressively developed in the last decade to assist die designers.There are various procedures involved in metal stamping tooling designs which are necessary for accuratetool production. The very first stage in die design is the process of evaluating the metallic part to be made, itAsproperties, dimension and comple*ity of the contour.


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Figure 1:1etal stamping products"o# $oes Metal tamping %or&'1etal tamping includes many different types of sheet"metal forming manufacturing processes. Bey parts ofthe process include punching -using a machine or stamping press&, blan'ing, coining, embossing, andbending. tamping is primarily carried out on sheet metal, but can also be used on other materials, such asaluminum, steel, plastic and foil.(endingProcess that results in a C, +, or channel shape in any bendable material -most often sheet metal& withoutfracturing. /n e*ample would be the bottom of a drin's can.(lan&ing

/ shearing operation that uses a punch to create a blan' from the sheet metal or a plate.Progressive $ie1etal tamping die that pushes a sheet of metal through a series of operations until a finished part is made.

/n e*ample would be the lid of a soda can -separate operations for the lid and pull tab&.Compound $ie

1etal tamping 9ie that performs more than one operation in a single press.$eep $ra#Process where a drawing press is used to form sheet metal through the mechanical action of a punch. /ne*ample would be a 'itchen sin'.)appingProcess of cutting the threads in a hole. /n e*ample of this would be a nut, where a bolt screws into.Coining

/ precision metal stamping form used most often where high relief or very fine features are needed. /ne*ample would be money -quarter, nic'el, dime&, badges, and medals.Em*ossing1etalwor'ing process where soft malleable metals are shaped and designed by hammering on the reverseside.(lan&ing1etal stamping operation by which the sheet metal is punched to get the required outer profile of the sheetmetal component. 9uring the blan'ing process the blan'ing punch penetrates into the sheet metal and forces

the material into the blan'ing die. The portion of the sheet 1etal which comes out through the blan'ing dieopening is the component with the required profile. ?ence it is important that the dimension of the blan'ing dieprofile is equal to the dimension of the component profile. (n blan'ing tools, the cutting clearance is given onthe blan'ing punch.)+pes of (lan&ing $ies;lan'ing dies can be a single stage press tool where the component is produced in each stro'e of theblan'ing press. (n single stage blan'ing tools, there could be many stamping operations done prior to theblan'ing or those operations could also be done after blan'ing depending upon the comple*ity of the blan'ingprofile of the part, sheet thic'ness, or dimensional importance of different stamping operations required toproduce the final component. (n progressive blan'ing press tools, stamping operations li'e piercing, bendingand forming are done in various stages prior to the blan'ing stage. (n the blan'ing stage the final component


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is punched through the blan'ing die.(lan&ing $ie $esignee the below drawing for a simple blan'ing die design. The portion of the sheet metal which is punchedthrough the die is the blan' or the component.

Figure 2:chematic view of ;lan'ing 9ie Process


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The placement of dies in a press is 'nown as die setup. 9ie setup decides the shut height and binder force.The number of components produced in a die setup is 'nown as a batch.There are many different 'inds of dies such as single station dies, multiple station dies, compound dies,progressive dies and tandem press lines. 1ost dies are designed by the metal stamping companies who useadvanced technologies li'e 4/9 to design them according to customer specifications. /nother classification ofdies is draw dies, trim dies and cam"pierce dies.1etal tamping (nfo provides detailed information about precision, custom, and sheet metal stamping, as well

as metal stamping machines and metal stamping dies. 1etal tamping (nfo is the sister site of Wire 91Web.!eet Metal tampingtamping presses and stamping dies are tools used to produce high volume sheet metal parts. These partsachieve their shape through the effects of the die tooling. Production stamping is generally performed onmaterials with a thic'ness of between .%0%E and .%%E, but the process also can be applied to foils as thin as .%%!E or to plate stoc' with thic'nessD approaching !.%%%E. Formability is the primary attribute of sheet metalmaterial with formability being further defined as the materials ability to be:G ;entG tretchedG 9rawnThe metallurgical term for these qualities is HductilityE. 9uctility is the materials ability to deform and elongatewithout fracture. The e*tent to which a stamping is sub6ected to such deformation is directly related to theparts overall shape and geometry. Other factors also influence the materialAs formability and they include:G The die design

G The pressG The press speedG >ubricationG heet metal feeding mechanismsG 1onitoring and control systemsThe word HdieE is a generic term used to describe the tooling used to produce stamped parts. / die setassembly consisting of a male and female component is the actual tool that produces the shaped stamping.The male and female components wor' in opposition to both form and punc! !olesin the stoc'.The upper half of the die set, which may be either the male or female, is mounted on the press ram anddelivers the stro'e action. The lower half is attached to an intermediate bolster plate which in turn is securedto the press bed. 8uide pins are used to insure alignment between the upper and lower halves of the die set.The most common t+pes of diesperform cutting and forming. 4utting dies are used to shear sheet materialinto what is called a blan'. These blan's are then e*posed to blan'ing dies which cut the entire perimeter ofthe part, or into to forming dies where the blan' is stamped into a part. Punching is another function of cuttingdies. Punching is the cutting of a slug from the sheet metal stoc' to produce a hole or slot.

4utting dies are also used to trim e*cess metal from around a formed part. ?ole punching and other cuttingoperations require specific and carefully maintained clearances between the punch -male component& and thedie -female component&. The setting of the required clearances is determined by both the stoc' thic'ness andtemper.(n general, die clearances increase as the stoc' thic'ness increases. The depth of punch penetration into thesheet metal stoc' will also increase as softer stoc' is used. Forming is a general term used to describe astamped part whose shape and contour is reproduced directly from the shape and contour of a die set. Themain forming operations accomplished with press mounted dies are:G 9rawingG ;endingG FlangingG ?emming9rawing, or draw forming, involves forcing a blan' deeply into a die cavity and shaping it into the shape andcontour of the punch face and sides. Without sufficient formability qualities, drawn blan's are sub6ect towrin'ling, thinning, and fracturing. 9raw forming requires an addition to the die set called a blan'holder.The function of the blan' holder, usually a ring through which the punch and ram pass, is to control the metalflow as it is forced into the die cavity. (n practice, the blan' holder must e*ert less pressure against the blan'than the punch, so metal can flow into the die) yet it must e*ert enough pressure to prevent the material fromwrin'ling. ;ending is a relatively simple forming operation which provides rigidity and shape to sheet metalparts. imilar to bending is flanging. ?owever a flange is by definition, significantly smaller in dimension thanthe rest of the part. The functions of flanges include:G 8iving a more finished appearanceG 7igidityG dge strengtheningG Providing a fastening or attachment surface


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?emming is the folding over of a short flange upon itself to form a smooth, rounded edge and to facilitate theattachment of mating parts. 1ultiple stamping operations may be performed within a single die, or at a numberof die stations within a die set and with a single stro'e of the press.ingle station dies can be either compound dies or combinations dies. / compound die performs basic cuttingoperations such as blan'ing and hole punching to produce parts. 4ombination dies combine shaping andforming functions with cutting operation to manufacture parts.1ultiple station dies are arranged so that a series of sequential operations are accomplished with each press

stro'e. Two die types are used) progressive and transfer. With progressive dies, coil stoc' is fed into thepress. (ndividual stampings are connected with a carrier strip as they progress through the various dieoperations and are ultimately separated and then discharged from the press.(n transfer die operations individual stoc' blan's are mechanically moved from die station to die station withina single die set. >arge stampings are done with tandem press lines where the stoc' is moved from press topress in which specific operations, such as drawing or trimming, are performed.The resistance of the sheet metal stoc' to the forces e*erted by the moving dies creates friction. For thisreason, lubrication is vital for successful sheet metal forming. / lubricationDs function is to minimie contactbetween the tooling and the wor' piece. This results in reduced tonnage requirements, longer tooling life, andimproved product quality. >ubricants range from light mineral oils to high viscosity drawing compounds.They may be oil based, water soluble, or synthetic materials. These lubricants may be applied in a variety ofways, including:G 1anually by roller or brushG 9ripG 1achine roller

G prayingG Flooding9ie ma'ing is as much an art as a science. When all the dynamics of stamping are ta'en into account, theresulting part may not meet all e*pectations. To help fine tune the stamping process and finalie die design,die ma'ers use an analytical tool called 4ircle 8rid /nalysis, or 48/. The application of 48/ involves theetching of a pattern of small circles on the surface of the blan'. This pattern deforms along with the blan' as itis formed, providing point"to point calculations of the deformation that occurred. /nalying this stamped gridpattern suggests the location and type of rewor' that must be performed on the dies to produce easilymanufactured parts. The 48/ process is repeated on the die until an acceptable part is produced.

Figure 1:Production steps for the manufacture of an oil sump

Date Published: Feb-2011

Forging

Extracto:


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Forging was the first of the indirect compression"type process and it is probably theoldest method of metal forming. (t involves the application of a compressive stress, whiche*ceeds the flow stress of the metal. The stress can either be applied quic'ly or slowly.The process can be carried out hot or cold, choice of temperature being decided by suchfactors as whether ease and cheapness of deformation, production of certain mechanicalproperties or surface finish is the overriding factor.There are two 'inds of forging process, impact forging and press forging. (n the former,the load is applied by impact, and deformation ta'es place over a very short time. Pressforging, on the other hand, involves the gradual build up of pressure to cause the metal toyield. The time of application is relatively long. Over 2%I of forging processes are hot.

Forging was the first of the indirect compression"type process and it is probably the oldest method of metalforming. (t involves the application of a compressive stress, which e*ceeds the flow stress of the metal. Thestress can either be applied quic'ly or slowly. The process can be carried out hot or cold, choice oftemperature being decided by such factors as whether ease and cheapness of deformation, production ofcertain mechanical properties or surface finish is the overriding factor.There are two 'inds of forging process, impact forging and press forging. (n the former, the load is applied byimpact, and deformation ta'es place over a very short time. Press forging, on the other hand, involves thegradual build up of pressure to cause the metal to yield. The time of application is relatively long. Over 2%I of

forging processes are hot.(mpact forging can be further subdivided into three types:

mith forging,

9rop forging,

+pset forging.

mit! ForgingThis is undoubtedly the oldest type of forging, but it is now relatively uncommon. The impact force fordeformation is applied manually by the blac'smith by means of a hammer. The piece of metal is heated in aforge and when at the proper temperature is placed on an anvil. This is a heavy mass of steel with a flat top, ahorn which is curved for producing different curvatures, and a square hole in the top to accommodate variousanvil fittings. While being hammered the metal is held with suitable tongs.Formers are sometimes used) these have handles and are held onto the wor' piece by the smith while theother end is struc' with a sledgehammer by a helper. The surfaces of the formers have different shapes andare used to impart these shapes to the forgings. One type of former, called fuller, has a well"rounded chisel"shaped edge and is used to draw out or e*tend the wor' piece. / fuller concentrates the blow and causes themetal to lengthen much more rapidly than can be done by using a flat hammer surface. Fullers are also madeas anvil fittings so that the metal is drawn out using both a top and bottom fuller. Fittings of various shapescan be placed in the square hole in the anvil.The wor'ing chisels are used for cutting the metal, punches and a bloc' having proper"sied holes are usedfor punching out holes. Welding can be done by shaping the surfaces to be 6oined, heating the two piecesthen adding a flu* to the surfaces to remove scale and impurities. The two pieces are then hammeredtogether producing welding.The easiest metals to forge are the low and medium carbon steels and most smith forgings are made of thesemetals. The high carbon and alloy steels are more difficult to forge and require great care.$rop Forging

This is the modern equivalent of smith forging where the limited force of the blac'smith has been replaced bythe mechanical or steam hammer. The process can be carried out by open forging where the hammer isreplaced by a tup and the metal is manipulated manually on an anvil.The quality of the products depends very much on the s'ill of the forger. Open forging is used e*tensively forthe cogging process where the wor' piece is reduced in sie by repeated blows as the metal gradually passesunder the forge.The cogging of a prismatic bar can be used to assess the parameters involved and how they are controlled.The ob6ective is to reduce the thic'ness of the wor' piece in a stepwise sequence from end to end. everalpasses may be required to complete the wor' and edging is usually carried out to control the width. Thereduction in thic'ness is accompanied by elongation and spreading. The relative amounts of elongation andspread cannot be calculated theoretically but they have been determined e*perimentally for mild steel.


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$ie drop forging.4losed"die drop forging is widely used and the tup and anvil are replaced by dies. 1atchingdies fit into the anvil and the tup. The dies have a series of grooves and depressions cut into them and thewor' piece is passed in sequence through a shaping series.These stations have names such as fullering, bloc'ing, edging, bending and cut off. Where several stages areinvolved, care must be ta'en to ensure that the metal does not become e*cessively chilled before the laststation is reached. To ensure that the die cavity is completely filled the volume of the starting billet is greaterthan that of the final forging. The e*cess metal appears as a JflashJ at each stage, this is a thin fin around the

perimeter of the forging at the parting line. This flash is cut away in a further press operation generally at ahigh temperature. The weight of flash may be a small percentage of the total weight for forgings of simpleshapes but may e*ceed the weight of the actual forging for those of comple* shape.ach sie and shape of forging will thus require a separate set of forging and trimming dies. The productiontolerance for the initial metal must involve e*cess, e.g. K!% mm. The over"tolerance metal is accommodatedby a gutter around the die cavity which allows the formation of the fin referred to earlier.,pset ForgingThis process was developed originally to gather, or upset metal to form heads on bolts. Today the purpose ofthis machine has been broadened to include a wide variety of forgings.(t is essentially a double"acting press with horiontal motions rather than vertical. The forging machine has twoactions. (n the first, a movable die travels horiontally towards a similar stationary die. These two dies havesemi"circular horiontal grooves, which grip the bars. / bar heated at the end is inserted between the movableand stationary die. While thus held, the end of the bar is upset or pressed into the die cavity by a heading toolmounted on a ram, which moves towards the front of the machine.(f he*agon heads are desired, a heading tool will upset some of the metal into a he*agon"shaped die cavity.

For more comple* forgings, as many as si* different dies and heading tools may be used in turn in a similarmanner to the different stations in die drop forging.Press ForgingWhereas impact forging usually involves a mechanical press, press forging, on the other hand, requireshydraulic power. The largest forgings are invariably produced on large hydraulic presses. These havevertically moving rams, which move down slowly under considerable pressure.

/ typical press forge would be capable of loads of the order of L%%% to !%%%% tones. Forgings up to !%% tonesweight can be handled easily in this forge and the highest"quality products are manufactured by thistechnique.tructure and Properties of ForgingsForgings are invariably produced by the hot"wor'ing process and this controls the resultant structure andproperties. There are, however, important differences in forgings produced by different techniques.The fact that the impact forge applies a stress for a very short period compared to the long period for thepress forge results in totally different structures in the product. (n the case of impact, the mechanical wor'ingis concentrated in the surface layers, since rapid removal of the stress after the blow results in metal

rela*ation before the effect of the blow has penetrated into the center. (mpact forging of a large Jas castJ pieceof metal at high temperature will result in a very inhomogeneous structure, the outside layers showing atypical hot"wor'ed structure whilst the center is still as cast. /ny attempt to achieve greater penetration byincreasing the impact load usually leads to internal crac'ing. (mpact forging is therefore limited to relativelysmall wor' pieces.Press forging invariably results in total penetration of the effect of the applied stress into the center of the wor'piece. The process is generally less severe on the metal than impact. The end result is a more homogeneousproduct having very high quality. ince the process is much slower and the equipment used is much larger,press forged articles are more e*pensive than impact forged components.

Date Published: Jan-2006

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