1

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to join nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, phrases, and clauses.

Both . . . and and not only ... but also indicate addition.

Either . . . or indicates choice / alternative.

Neither . . . nor indicates negative choice / addition.

Each conjunction should be placed immediately in front of the word, phrase, or clause it connects.EXAMPLES: Both Janet and her sister arrived last night.

You can either go with me or stay here.He’s not only intelligent but also wealthy.Roy drives neither carelessly nor fast.

When the compound subjects of a sentence are joined by either . . . or / neither . . . nor, the general rule is that the number of the verb is determined by the number of the noun phrase closest to it.

EXAMPLES: Either Mr. Reynolds or his sons always attend the company’s annual meeting.

Neither the passengers nor the bus driver was injured in the accident.

2

EMBEDDED QUESTIONS

1. Both yes-no and question-word questions can be set into, or embedded in, other sentences. They become noun clauses and are referred to as embedded questions.

2. A noun clause introduced by a question word is an embedded question-word question.

EXAMPLE:

How did he do it? (question-word question) I don’t know how he did it. (embedded clause)

3. A noun clause introduced by if or whether is an embedded yes-no question.

EXAMPLE:

Is he going? (yes-no question) Do you know if he is going? (embedded clause)

4. When a question is embedded, its word order changes.

EXAMPLE:

How did he do it? (question word-auxiliary verb-subject-main verb)

I don’t know how he did it. (question word-subject-main verb)

Has he left? (auxiliary verb-subject-verb)

Do you know if he has left? (conjunction-subject-auxiliary verb + main verb)

3

5. A noun clause can be used as a subject or as an object.

a. Noun clauses in the subject position.

EXAMPLE:

What he did is not yet known. How he got there is not important.

b. Noun clauses in the object position usually follow phrases like those underlined in the following sentences.

EXAMPLE:

I don’t know what I can do. I wonder if he’s coming today. I don’t understand what he is saying. Do you know whether or not class is over? Ask him/her where we have to check in. Can you tell me which bus goes to town?

4

ONE USE OF THE GERUND

A gerund or gerund phrase can be the subject of a sentence and may appear before the verb. It can be made negative by placing the word not before the gerund. If there’s a subject of the gerund, it must be in the possessive* form.EXAMPLES:

Eating too much candy is bad for your teeth.Not getting enough sleep will make you feel tired at work.Johnny’s* fast driving caused him to lose his license.

ANOTHER USE OF THE GERUND

A gerund or gerund phrase can be the subject of a sentence and may appear after the verb in an anticipatory-it construction. EXAMPLES:

It’s been a pleasure meeting you. (means the same as)Meeting you has been a pleasure.It hasn’t been fun climbing this mountain. (means the same as)Climbing this mountain hasn’t been fun.

ONE MORE USE OF THE GERUND

A gerund or gerund phrase may be used as the object of a preposition. It can be made negative by placing the word not before the gerund. If there’s a subject of the gerund, it must be in the possessive* form.EXAMPLES:

Thank you for being my friend.We were happy about not having homework.When he spoke to the soldiers, the colonel insisted on their* standing at attention.

5

THE GERUND AS DIRECT OBJECT

Some verbs in English are followed by a gerund or a gerund phrase. The gerund is the verb form which ends in –ing. The gerund is used as a noun.

TYPE OF SENTENCE

SUBJECT VERB GERUND (PHRASE)

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

ISheThey

IHeThey

ISheThey

Do youDid heCan they

put offpracticesconsidered

don’t likedoesn’t missdon’t mind

likeregretsdeny

likecontinuebegin

studying until today.speaking English every day.inviting Mary.

wearing glasses.being with his family.helping the police.

not wearing glasses.not being with her family.not helping the police.

playing the guitar?studying French?working on the report now?

This is a partial list of verbs which can be followed by a gerund.

allow enjoy postpone resistanticipate escape practice startappreciate finish put off stopbegin imagine quit suggestcan’t help keep recall tolerateconsider like recommend understandcontinue mind regretdeny miss rememberdiscuss permit report

6

TAG QUESTIONS

Tag questions are short questions which are attached to statements. Affirmative statements have negative tag questions. Negative statements have affirmative tag questions.

Tag questions can have a rising intonation or a falling intonation. Each kind of intonation expresses something different. Tag questions with a rising intonation are used to seek confirmation – the speaker is not certain about the information. Tag questions with a falling intonation are used to seek agreement – the speaker is certain about the information and wants you to agree with him.

WE HAVE TO READ THESE DIALOGS, DON’T WE ?

TAG QUESTIONS

Hedoesn’t study every day, does

he?hasn’t written his family, hasisn’t leaving tomorrow, Is

YouShould do your homework, shouldn’t

you?have a large family, don’t

are a student here, aren’t

7

SUBJUNCTIVE THAT NOUN CLAUSE AFTER ANTICIPATORY -IT

A noun clause which follows an anticipatory-it construction has the verb in the subjunctive mood.

Anticipatory-it Subjunctive noun clause

It’s

Adjective

(that)

I be on time.you do the work.he not fail the exam.she remain in class.the book be studied.we report to the chief.they go to the meeting.

advisablebestbettercompulsorycriticalessentialimportantmandatorynecessaryrequiredurgent

8

TENSES INDICATING FUTURE

A future addition or condition is expressed with will or be going to. When there´s certainty about a future action, the simple present tense or the present progressive may also de used. Time expressions often accompany these last tenses to clarify time.

The trainwill departis going to depart departsis departing

At 2:30 p.m.

9

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS: SOME-, ANY-, AND NO- COMPOUNDS

The indefinite pronouns something, someone, somebody, anything, anyone, and anybody can be used in questions.

EXAMPLES:

Did Al put something in his car?Did you see someone/somebody in the lab?Would you like anything to drink?Did you speak to anyone/anybody about your problem?

The indefinite pronouns something, someone, somebody, anything, anyone, anybody, nothing, no one, and nobody can be used in affirmative sentences.

EXAMPLES:

Ed put something in his desk.I saw someone/somebody in the library.You may choose anything you want from the menu.Anyone/anybody in that office can help you.Nothing you say will change my mind.No one/nobody wants to do the assignment.

The indefinite pronouns anything, anyone, and anybody can be used in negative sentence.

EXAMPLES:

Joe didn’t bring anything to wear for cold weather.I don't want anyone/anybody to know I’m leaving.

10

INDEFINITE ADVERBS: SOME-, ANY-, AND NO- COMPOUNDS

The indefinite adverbs someplace, somewhere, anyplace, and, anywhere can be used in questions.

EXAMPLES:

Would you like to go someplace/somewhere after dinner? Are you going anyplace/anywhere this weekend?

The indefinite adverbs someplace, somewhere, anyplace, anywhere, no place, and nowhere can be used in affirmative sentences.

EXAMPLES:

John went someplace/somewhere trhis morning.Sit down anyplace/anywhere when the show begins.Ed’s going no place/nowhere during his vacation.

The indefinite adverbs anyplace and anywhere can be used in negative sentences.

EXAMPLES:

I feel ill, so I won't go anyplace/anywhere tonight.

11

VERBS OF PERCEPTION + BARE INFINITIVES OR PRESENT PARTICIPLES

Certain verbs of perception and their objects are followed by the bare infinitive (the simple verb form without "to") or the present participle (the -ing form of the verb). The bare infinitive is used to emphasize completion of the action. The present participle is used to emphasize the duration of the action.

These verbs follow the pattern:

Feel look at observe *smell

Hear notice see watch

listen to

*The verb, smell can be used only with the present participle form.

EXAMPLES:

We saw him run/running across the field.

I didn't hear Bill knock/knocking at the door.

Did you notice the doctor go/going into the room?

Can't you smell the cookies baking in the kitchen?

12

MANNER USING A PRESENT PARTICIPLE

The manner in which something is done can be shown using certain terms and expressions followed by the -ing form of a verb. For example, in the expression "have fun singing", the word singing indicates the manner of having fun.

EXPRESSION + -INGhave fun have a good timehave troublehave difficultyhave a hard timehave a diffucul time

singingplayingstudyingunderstandinghearinggetting

SPEND / WASTE + EXPRESSION OF TIME + -INGspend waste

a yearan hour

studyingwaiting

SIT / STAND / LIE + EXPRESSION OF PLACE + -INGSitstandlie

at the computerin lineon the beach

workingwaitingsleeping

13

HE LOVES THIS BOOK, AND SO DO I.

He went downtown. I went downtown.He went downtown, and I did too.

so did I.

She doesn’t like fish. They don’t like fish.She doesn’t like fish, and neither do they

They don’t either.

14

DIRECT OBJECT + PASSIVE INFINITIVE / PAST PARTICIPLE

When we have someone else perform a job for us, we often use a verb of volition (like, want, need, or expect), followed by a direct object and either a passive infinitive or a past participle.

Like, want, need, and expect can be followed by either a past participle or a passive infinitive.

EXAMPLE:I’d like the oil changed this morning.Pete wants his brakes checked before his trip.He needs the wheels aligned as soon as possible.

The librarian wants the books to be returned in good condition.We’d like the pictures to be taken by a professional photographer.

Expect is usually followed by a passive infinitive.

EXAMPLE: The boss expects this job to be done today.Maj Garza doesn’t expect his orders to be changed.

15

The verbs have, make, and get are commonly used in causative constructions.

1. MAKE / MADE

Mrs. Jones makes her children clean their rooms.The instructor made the students stay after class.

When you “make someone do something”, it gives the idea that there are no choices; someone must do something.

The bare infinitive (simple form) is used after the verb.

2. HAVE / HAD

We have Mr. James paint our house every four years. He had his friend help him with his homework.

When you "have someone do something" you ask someone to do something, sometimes for pay. Like with make, the bare infinitive (simple form) is used after the verb.

3. GET / GOT

He’ll get the carpenter to build a bookcase.She got the mechanic to adjust the brakes.

“Get someone to do something” has the same meaning as “have someone do something”. You are asking someone to do something for you. Notice that the to-infinitive is used after get in a causative construction. Also, the get-causative is used frequently in conversation.

16

4. PASSIVE CAUSATIVES

I had my film developed. (by someone)We got our car repaired. (by someone)

The causative verbs have and get can also be used in passive constructions. In this case, it means that you have or get something done by someone. The past participle of the verb is used in the passive. In addition, the by-prepositional phrase is often omitted.

17

SO . . . (THAT) / SUCH . . . (THAT)

So ... (that) is used with adjectives, adverbs, or noun phrases. (The phrases may have “much” or “many” in them.)Such... (that) is only used with noun phrases. (The phrases never have “much” or “many” before the noun.)

SITUATION RESULT

Jim isso tall

(that) he has to bend to enter.such A tall man

18

RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

A restrictive adjective clause modifies a noun by describing or giving additional information about that noun. It always directly follows the noun to which it relates. Since it follows so closely, this clause frequently separates the noun from the verb.

Adjective clauses can be introduced by the relative pronouns that / which / who and relate to the subject of the clause. In this type of structure, the clause is linked to part or all of the main clause.

MORE RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Adjective clauses may be introduced by the relative pronouns who(m) / which / that and relate to the object of the clause. The relative pronouns may be omitted.

WHERE / WHEN USED AS RELATIVE ADVERBS

Some adjective clauses may be introduced by the relative adverbs where / when and relate to the place or time.

WHOSE IN RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Another restrictive adjective clause is introduced by the relative adjective whose. It is used to show possession and replaces the possessive adjectives in combined sentences. It comes directly after the noun to which it relates and almost always refers to people.

19

NONREFERENTIAL THERE + GERUND

There + Be means something exists. It can sometimes be followed by a gerund phrase.

There was yelling and screaming at the football game. There will be celebrating after the graduation. There is no smoking in this building.

20

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE REDUCED TO TO-INFINITIVE PHRASE

Restrictive adjective clauses can be reduced to to-infinitive phrases. For + noun pronoun sometimes comes before the to-infinitive phrase.

Roger has a lot (that) he must learn.Roger has a lot to learn.

Mr. Kent is the man (whom) you should talk to about your taxes.Mr. Kent is the man to talk to about your taxes.

I brought some snacks (that) we can eat later.I brought some snacks for us to eat later.

Relative clauses introduced by when and where can also be reduced to to-infinitive phrases.Do you know a place (where) I can buy batteries?Do you know a place to buy batteries?

Saturday’s the only day (when) I can do the laundry.Saturday’s the only day to do the laundry.

I know of a good place (where) you can meet me.I know of a good place for you to meet me.

21

NOUN CLAUSES AFTER CERTAIN VERBS

A noun clause can be used after certain verbs that express necessity and requesting. Some of the more common verbs are:

advise

ask ( = request )

command

recommend

request

suggest

insist

order

urge

“That” can be used to introduce these clauses. It can also be omitted in this structure. When a noun clause follows one of these verbs, the verb in the clause has no -s for third person singular and no -ed for past tense. Be is used instead of is, am, are. We say that the verb is a subjunctive form.

His mother insisted (that) he be home at eight.

I suggested to John (that) he study for the test.

Mr. Former recommended (that) we not leave today.

22

NOUN AS OBJECT COMPLEMENT AFTER VERBS OF CHOOSING

In sentences that contain verbs of choosing, considering, and thinking, two nouns can follow the verb. These two nouns refer to the same person or the same thing. These sentences may be written different ways.

EXAMPLES:

The players elected Jim as their leader.The players elected Jim to be their leader.The players elected Jim their leader.

(Jim = leader)

The commander has declared next Monday as a holiday.The commander has declared next Monday to be a holiday.The commander has declared next Monday a holiday.

(next Monday = a holiday)

NOTE: In some sentences, either as or to be can be used, but not both.

REDUCING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO ADJECTIVE PHRASES

Sentences that contain adjective clauses can be shortened by changing the adjective clauses to adjective phrases. Either the present or past participle is used in the phrase

EXAMPLES:

Cars that are parked on the grass must be moved.Cars parked on the grass must be moved

No one who is taking the test may leave the room.No one taking the test may leave the room.

The meal that is being planned is a special one.The meal being planned is a special one.

23

REDUCING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Sentences that contain adjective clauses with a subject pronoun and the verb be followed by a prepositional phrase or the verb have and a direct object can be shortened by changing the adjective clauses to prepositional phrases. Adjective clauses that contain have / don’t have are reduced to prepositional phrases containing “with” or “without”.

SUBJECT

ADJECTIVE

Subject Pronoun+ Be / Have

CLAUSE

PrepositionalPhrase

PREDICATE

The pay phone

The pay phone

that’s

- - - - -

on the wall

on the wall

doesn’t work.

doesn’t work.The cap

The cap

that has

- - - - -

a star on it

with a star on it

is the general’s.

is the general’s.

24

EMPHATIC DO

When we want to stress or emphasize an action, we can use do, does, or did before the verb.

EXAMPLES: Alan: Do you want to play soccer with us this afternoon?Rick: I don’t play soccer, but I do play tennis.

Anne:Does Andy have a class tonight?Paul: Not tonight, but he does have one Monday.

Bart: Did you meet my niece last night?Owen: No, but I did meet your nephew.

NOTE: Use the emphatic do sparingly.

25

GET – PASSIVE

Get - passive is used to refer to an action that happens to something or someone.

EXAMPLES:

The house will get finished eventuallyJohn and Sue got married last Saturday.Rome didn’t get built in a day.Larry has gotten accepted by Smith University.

26

PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES AS NOUN MODIFIERS

A participle is a verb form which can be used either in a verb phrase or as an adjective. The present participle ends in -ing. The past participle ends in -ed, -d, -t, -n o -en.

EXAMPLES:

The water which is boiling produces steam.(present participle used in a verb phrase)

Boiling water produces steam.(present participle used as an adjective)

He opened the envelope which had been sealed.(past participle used in a verb phrase)

He opened the sealed enveloped.(past participle used as an adjective)

In a participle-noun combination, the noun receives the primary stress ( / ), and the participle receives the secondary stress ( ^ ).

EXAMPLES:^ /

We walked for a mile in the pouring rain. ^ /

The bank will return your cancelled checks!

27

PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES AS OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS

A present or past participle can be used after a direct object to modify the direct object. The direct object and participle will follow the verb catch, discover, find, keep, or leave. (Note: The verb catch does not ordinarily take a past participle as a complement.)

A present participle is used when the direct object performs an action. A past participle is used when the direct object receives the action.

SUBJECT VERB DIRECT OBJECT PARTICIPLE

We Found the other guests waiting for us.

He Kept his fear of heights hidden.

28

REVIEW OF THE IMPERATIVE FORM

The second person imperative is used to give commands, instructions, and directions. The simple form of the verb (the bare infinitive) is used. The negative imperative is formed with do not or don’t.

ANSWER THE PHONE

(You)

answerdon’t movego

the phone, pleasethe victim.two blocks straight ahead.

29

ADVERB OF TIME

Yet, already, still, and anymore are adverbs of time. They have different meanings and are used in different types of sentences.

Yet shows that we expect some action to take place in the future. It is used in yes / no questions and negative statements at the end of the sentence.

Have you finished yet? No, I haven't received the letter yet.

Already shows that an expected activity has happened. It is used in questions and affirmative statements, usually in the middle of the sentence.

Dinner has already been served. Have you already mailed the package?

Still shows that a situation continues to exist from the past to the present. It is used in questions and statements in the middle of the sentence.

Does he still live in Los Angeles? Yes, he still lives there.

We’ve called three times. He still isn’t home.

Still can also carry a negative meaning. It implies that someone is spending too much time doing something.

He still hasn’t finished what he was told to do.

30

Anymore shows that a past situation is over and doesn´t continue to exist. It is used in yes / no questions and negative statements at the end of the sentence. It is frequently used with still to show a contrast.

I don't go to the gym anymore,

but I still exercise every day.

Do you speak Italian anymore?

31

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS SO, YET, AND NOR

The coordinating conjunctions so, yet and nor, are used to connect two independent clauses.

Usually, a comma is placed before the conjunction.

So is used to express result.

I had a bad toothache. (situation / action) I went to the dentist. (result)

I had a bad toothache, so I went to the dentist.

Yet is used to express contrast. It is similar to the conjunction but.

She didn't study for the test. (action) She passed it. (contrast)

She didn't study for the test, yet she passed it.

Nor is used to indicate the addition of a negative idea to a negative sentence. The verb of the second clause is charge to the affirmative, and the word order is changed to that of a question.

John can't swim. (negative) His brother can't swim. (negative addition) John can't swim, nor can his brother (swim).

32

LET’S REDUCE ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONTRAST TO MODIFYING PHRASES.

Some dependent clauses in English can be reduced to phrases by omitting the subject of the clause and the BE form of the verb. Look at these adverb clauses of contrast / concession. Pay special attention to the words in the parentheses ( ), and notice how the clauses become phrases when the words in ( ) are omitted.

Even if ( he is ) sick Mark still tries to come to work.

The tank was damaged Even though ( it was ) made of armor.

Although ( he was ) tired, Tom studied until 3:00 A. M.

The dessert was delicious Though ( it was ) too sweet

33

USING BE TO

Be to meaning “be required to,” “be supposed to,” or “ be scheduled to, “ Is used to express necessity / obligation or future time.

EXAMPLES: You were supposed to study Lesson Two last night.You were to study lesson Two last night.

The plane is scheduled to leave at noon.The plane is to leave at noon.

34

IF-CLAUSES: REAL CONDITIONS AND UNREAL CONDITIONS

Sentences containing if-clauses are called conditional sentences. They have two parts: the main clause and the if-clause. There are three kinds of conditional sentences: present real, present unreal, and past unreal.

REAL CONDITIONS

Real conditions are those which presently exist, are probable, or are likely to happen.

Present tense verb forms (simple present, present progresive, or present perfect) are used in the if-, or conditional, clause.Present, future, or imperative verb forms may be use in the main clause. Notice that you can also use a variety of modals, such as can, should, might, may, to add meaning to the verb in the main clause.

When a conditional clause begins a sentence, a comma is used to separate it from the main clause.

Conditional clause Main clauseIf I study hard,If I am studying,If you need to talk to me,If I study hard,

If you want to pass the test,If you have finished,

I always pass the test.please do not disturb me.you can call me later.I will pass the test.

study hard.you may leave.

When the if-clause follows the main clause, a comma is not used to separate it form the main clause.

Conditional clause Conditional clauseI always pass testPlease do not disturb meyou can call me laterI will pass the test

study hard you may leave

if I study hardif I am studyingif you need to talk to meif I study hard

if you want to pass the testif you have finished

35

UNREAL CONDITIONS

Unreal or contrary-to-fact conditions are those that are impossible, improbable, or not likely to happen. They can belong to either the present or the past.

Present unreal conditions

For present unreal conditions, the verb in the if-clause is in the past tense; the verb in the main clause is in the conditional:

would / could / might + the simple form of the verb

The subjunctive form were is used instead of was in the if-clause

Conditional clause Main clause

If I studied hard,

If I were You,

I could pass the test.

I would study harder.

Main clause Conditional clause

I could pass the test

I would study harder

If I studied hard.

If I were You.

36

Past unreal conditions

For the past unreal condition, the verb in the if-clause is in the past perfect tense. The verb in the main clause is in the perfect conditional tense:

would / could / might + present perfect tense.

Conditional clause Main clauseIf I had studied harder,

If You had studied harder,

I could have passed the test.

You would have passed the test.

Main clause If-clauseI could have passed the test

would You have passed the test

If I had studied harder.

If You had studied harder?

37

GO + GERUND

The verb go is sometimes followed by a gerund to form certain expressions. Remember that a gerund is a verb in –ing that functions like a noun. These expressions with go + verb-ing are ones that describe activities.

EXAMPLES: We went fishing last weekend.

What do you usually do in the summer? I like to go swimming at the lake.

My family and I haven’t gone sailing in years.

The following are some common expressions with go + gerund: Go dancing go shopping Go fishing go sightseeing Go jogging go swimming Go running go walking Go mountain climbing go window shopping

38

ADJECTIVE AND PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS

Some prepositions are found in combinations with certain adjectives after the verb BE.

EXAMPLES: My son is afraid of lightning and thunder.

Don’t be worried about the storm.

When he was in school, he was interested in science.

Is he absent from school today?

Some adjective – preposition combinations are frequently followed by a gerund (a verb in –ing that functions like a noun).

EXAMPLES: All of us are excited about visiting San Francisco.

Bill is accustomed to eating dinner late.

Mr. Price is found of reading at night.

39

Absent fromAccustomed toAfraid ofAngry at/withAppropriate forAware ofBad forBored with

Capable ofClear toConscious ofCritical ofCrowded with

Different fromDifficult forDisappointed in/withDoubtful aboutDedicated to

Enthusiastic aboutEqual toExcited aboutExhausted from

Faithful toFamiliar withFamous forFond ofFriendly to/ withFrightened ofFull ofGlad aboutGood atGrateful to/forGuilty ofHappy aboutHungry for

Incapable ofInnocent ofInterested inInvolved inKind toKnown for

Loyal to

Mad atMarried to

Nice to

Patient withPolite toProud ofPrepared for

Qualified for

Ready forRelated toResponsible for

Satisfied withScared ofSimilar to Successful inSure about

Terrified ofThirsty forTired from/ofTolerant of

Upset about

Worried about

40

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct speech, or quoted speech, refers to the original words of the speaker. Quotation marks are used.

Indirect speech, or reported speech, refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has said. Quotation marks are not used. Verbs and pronouns will change from direct to indirect speech.

EXAMPLES:

Direct speech Indirect Speech

John said, “ I feel sick” John said (that) he felt sick.Bill said, “My car is new” Bill said (that) his car is was new.

VERB FORMS USED IN INDIRECT SPEECH

When the verb of the indirect speech sentence is in the past tense (said, told, asked) the verb in the noun clause is usually used when the words of the speaker are reported at a later time, not immediately after it was said. Look changing an indirect speech noun clause to a past form.

Notice also the change in pronouns. The conjunction “that” is optional in the indirect speech noun clause.

41

Direct Speech

1. He said, “I write a letter every day.”2. He said, “I am writing a letter.”3. He said, “I have written a letter.”4. He said, “I wrote a letter.”5. He said, “I will write a letter.”6. He said, “I am going to write a

letter.”7. He said, “I can write a letter.”8. He said, “I may write a letter.”9. He said, “I must write a letter.”10.He said “ I have to write a letter.”11.He asked, “Do you want to write a

letter?”12.He asked, “When do you usually

write a letters?”13.He asked, “Where is the letter?”

Indirect Speech

He said (that) he wrote a letter every day.He said (that) he was writing a letter.He said (that) he had written a letter.He said (that) he had written a letter.He said (that) he would write a letter.He said (that) he was going to write a letter.He said (that) he could write a letter.He said (that) he said might write a letter.He said (that) he had to write a letter.He said (that) he had to write a letter.He asked me if / whether* I wanted to write a letter.He asked me when** I usually wrote letters.He asked where the letters was.

*Notice that either if or whether can be used in a reported yes – or – no question and that the usual statement word order is used in the noun clause.

**Notice that the question- word beings a reported question-word question and that the usual statement word order is used in the noun clause.

42

CHANGING EMBEDDED QUESTIONS TO INFINITIVES

Sentences containing an embedded question consist of a main clause and a dependent (noun) clause. The embedded question (noun clause) is introduced by when, where, how, who, whom, whose, what, which or whether and usually follows the following phrases:

I don’t know Can you tell meI know Do you knowI wonder How can I

Main Clause Embedded Question (Noun Clause)

Can you tell meHow I can wrap this package?Where I can find that book?What I should bring for the party?

I don’t knowHow I can wrap this packageWhere I can find that bookWhat I should bring for the party

Sometimes the embedded question (noun clause) in the sentence can be changed or reduced to an infinitive or an infinitive phrase.

Main Clause Question-word + to- infinitive

Can you tell meHow to wrap this package?Where to find that book?What to bring for the party?

I don’t knowHow to wrap this packageWhere to find that bookWhat to bring for the party

43

MAKING A SUGGESTION

We use shall with I or We in a question when we want to make a suggestion and ask another person if he/she agree with this suggestion.

For example, look at the following situations. Pay special attention to shall questions and their meanings.

Shall I:

A friend has just told you how he cleans fresh fish, but you know a better way of to do it. You suggest to your friend, "Shall I show you how I do this?" You are hoping he'll agree with or take You up on your suggestion.

Shall We:

It's twelve noon, you're hungry, and you want your friend to go lunch with you. You can say: "It's noon. Shall we go to lunch?" or simply, "shall we go to lunch?"

44

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

In English sentences, the verb must always agree with the subject, weather the subject is singular or plural. Of course, using a verb that agrees with subject requires the ability to first identify the subject with its possible modifiers as being either singular or plural.

Singular indefinite pronouns:

Some indefinite pronouns are considered singular, and therefore take a singular verb. These pronouns are: one, each, either, neither, every, body, somebody, someone, everybody, everyone, no one, nobody.

EXAMPLES:

One of the teachers in our school has a foreign car.Each of the children in the class has a dictionary.Either of the books on my desk is acceptable.

There + Be:

In a sentence with there + be, the verb agrees with the subject that follows it.

EXAMPLES:

There is a pencil on the table.There are some pencils on the table.

If the subject consists of two or more parts, the verb is plural.

EXAMPLE:

There are a notebook and a pen on the table.

Compound subjects:

Use a singular verb with the following:

a. When both parts of a compound subject refer to the same person or thing.

45

EXAMPLE: Her brother and president of the company was at the party.

b. When a singular subject is joined to a noun by together, with, accompanied by, or in addition to.

EXAMPLES: Betty, together with her sister, is going to Italy. David, accompanied by Theresa, was at the theater. A nut, in addtion to a bolt, is needed to hold this in place.

c. When each or every modofies singular parts of a compoun subject is joined together by and.

EXAMPLES: Every student and every teacher was at the meeting. Each coach and each player knows this rule.

d. When two parts of a compound subject are so closely related that they refer to a single thing.

EXAMPLE: Bacon and eggs is my favorite breakfast.

e. When two or more singular subjects are joined by or or nor.

EXAMPLES: Thomas or Eric operates the new computer. Neither Todd nor Roy understands the problem.

However, the verb agrees with the nearest noun when the subjects joined by or or nor differ in number or person.

EXAMPLES:

Either you or the girl has to complete the task.Either you or the girls have to complete the task.Neither Tom nor Jim was here.Neither Tom nor his friends were there.

And when two or more subjects are joined by and, a plural verb is used.

EXAMPLES:

46

Ross and Ted are good friends.Mr. and Mrs. Jones are hardworking individuals.Expressions of quantity:

When pronouns of indefinite quantity are used with an of phrase, the verb must agree with the noun that appears in the of phrase.

These pronouns are: Any, all, some, none, more, and most.

EXAMPLES:

Are any of the students from Ecuador?Is any of the coffee from Colombia?All of the students bring their dictionaries to class.

Irregular construction:

Some nouns which are irregular always appear in plural form, and therefore require plural verb.

EXAMPLE: The clothes are in the dryer.

Other irregular nouns end in -s and are singular in meaning, and therefore take a singular verb.

EXAMPLE: The news about more U.S. jobs is good.

There are also irregular nouns that show their plurality by means other than s. When these nouns are plural, they require plural verbs.

EXAMPLE: The man works eight hours. The men work eight hours.

Still other irregular noun may either be singular or plural.

EXAMPLE: One fish was in the shallow water. Ten fish were in deep water.

47

PRONOUN AGREEMENT

PRONOUN FORMS

Subject object possessive possessive reflexiveadjective pronoun

Sing.I

yousheheit

Plur. weyou

they

meyouherhimit

usyouthem

myyourherhisits

ouryourtheir

mineyourshershisitself

oursyourstheirs

myselfyourselfherselfhimself

ourselvesyourselvesthemselves

Remember that pronouns and possessive adjectives must agree in number, person, and gender with the noun or indefinite pronoun to which they refer.

48

49