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Avariety of factors including a shift in the median age

of workers worldwide and the impending skills short-age due to attrition and early retirements have cre-

ated a need to find fast and reliable methods and toolsfor mapping the technical competencies of professionals in the

chemical process industries (CPI). Typically competency-mappingprojects in the CPI begin with some form of task or hierarchical

job analysis. However, historically many of these initiatives have

been slowed down or have even failed due to incomplete or exces-sive lists of competencies, a lack of sense of ownership among

the workers and a lack of fit between generic competency mapsand project-specific requirements. Some competency map designs

capture what needs to be done with how it is done and whodoes it. Such maps have a short shelf life because they have to

be recreated every time there is a change either in the reportingstructure or in the tools being used by the enterprise.

The main objective of this article is to introduce a newframework for mapping functional competencies and toshare new insights gained by applying the framework topetroleum-refinery operators and maintenance technicians.

The new framework

The new competency-mapping framework (U.S. Patent No.61/358,262 pending) is used to map technical competen-cies and it employs the model described below.

Certain minimum levels of cognitive competencies (orknowledge) and functional competencies (or skills) are re-quired for a person to qualify for a task. Additional meta-cognitive, social and context-specific competencies enable aqualified person to excel at his or her job.

As shown in Figure 1, the framework consists of threegrids or maps. The first map shows what needs to be done.This map is called the outcome/experience (O/E) map be-cause it shows the value-added outcomes and can also beused to capture workers experience. A value-added out-come is something for which someone is willing to pay anemployee. Monitor a process line, diagnose a compressorproblem, write a plan, analyze a sample, teach mathemat-ics, escalate a distillation unit problem, optimize a processunit these are examples of value-added outcomes. Ablank O/E map can also be used by an employee to mark

all the value-added tasks he or she has done in the past.The second grid or map in Figure 1 shows what one

needs to know and be able to do in order to qualify for eachtask shown in the first map. This second map is thus calledthe knowledge-ability (K-A) map and is derived from the

first map by reverse engineering each task. The rows of theK-A map contain artifacts divided by types of content. Thisdivision of artifacts into facts, concepts, principles and pro-cedures is based on the Component Display Theory (CDT)developed by Merrill [1].Facts (sometimes called vocabulary) include names, la-

bels, values and designations that are associated with ob-jects, places and events. Facts are usually time-bound orephemeral. Facts are easier to identify than concepts

Concepts are concrete or abstract categories that enablegrouping of several facts. Concepts are generally nottime-bound and are considered to be universal

Principles are rules or relationships that connect two ormore concepts

Procedures consist of sets of steps that must be executedin a specific sequence to accomplish specific tasks

Solids Processing

Use this new visual mapping method

to assess functional qualifications

Saidas M. RanadeRWD Technologies, LLC

Jorge EliecerRodrguez Gmez

Ecopetrol, S.A.

Rafael Vsquez OrtizEcopetrol, S.A.

Juan CarlosRocha Montao

RWD Technologies, LLC

54 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2011

You & Your Job

REFINERY OPERATORS AND MAINTENANCE TECHNICIANS:

Mapping Competencies

FIGURE 1. Shown here are the three types of maps and twoconceptual relatonshps; between the value-added task andthe requred qualicatons (K-A map) and between competencygaps and the requred tranng nterventons

Acton verbs (ncreasng dffculty)

Reverse engneerng

Each cell contans descrptons ofone or more tranng nterventons

Competence verfcaton statements

X1X2X3X4

X5X6X7X8

X9X10X11X12

Currculum mapGap

Levels of processng

Aware(L0)

FactsConcepts

ProceduresPrncples

FactsConcepts

ProceduresPrncples

FactsConcepts

ProceduresPrncples

Understandand apply

(L1)Analyze

(L2)

K-A map

Evaluateand

create(L3)

L0L1 L1L2 L2L3 L3L4

Objects(increasingcomplexity)

Know

lwedgeandskills(KandS)

artifacts(X)

KandSartifacts

O/E map

Task


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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2011 55

Each of the columns of the K-A grid represents a level ofcognitive, affective or psychomotor outcome. Cognitive do-main involves knowledge and development of intellectual

skills. Bloom [2] originally proposed a taxonomy to assessoutcomes of learning. Blooms initial work focused on thecognitive domain. He divided a learners cognitive devel-opment into six levels. He labeled each level by a specificmode of cognitive processing used by the learner.

Blooms taxonomy is used extensively in the field of in-structional design and development. His work was laterextended by other researchers to include taxonomies foroutcomes in the affective [3] and the psychomotor domains[4]. Affective domain focuses on attitudes, emotions andfeelings. Skills in psychomotor domain describe ability tophysically manipulate a tool or an instrument.

The last map (top-right) in Figure 1 is a curriculum map

that lists all training interventions recommended for bridg-ing all possible competency gaps. Here is an example of acompetency gap: If for a specific artifact (say, X5), an indi-

vidual needs to be at L2 to qualify for a task but is at levelL1, there is a competency gap (defined as L2L1).

The individual needs to participate in a specific trainingintervention outlined in the curriculum map correspond-ing to the artifact X5 and in the column that shows L1L2that will move that individual to level L2. The K-A gridillustrated in Figure 1 has 12 artifacts shown in columnone and has four levels (L0, L1, L2 and L3).The maximumnumber of possible qualifications gaps for that specific gridis 48.The curriculum map for that situation shows 48 cells.

Each cell contains at least one training intervention. Addi-tional details on the framework and the maps are availablein the literature [57].

The process outlineAs shown in Figure 2, the process for developing trainingplans using the new framework consists of three phases:Create competency maps and a curriculum map (Phase I),identify competency gaps (Phase II), and develop a train-ing-intervention plan (Phase III). The recommended pro-cess for the first phase includes the following steps:

Step 1. Start with the creation of O/E map. Breakdown each task description into an action verb and an ob-

ject, such as Diagnose a problem. Show the verb on thex-axis and the object on the y-axis.

Step 2. Identify the most relevant cycles or pro-

cesses. Objects shown on the y-axis typically follow a

life-cycle consisting of different states. Each function, dis-cipline or group performs work using one or more core pro-cesses that distinguish it from other functions, disciplinesor groups For example, engineers often rely on a problem-solving cycle, software developers use a development cycle,and project teams use PDCA (for plan, do, check, adjust)or some other variation of the Demming cycle [8]. The corework processes performed by a function or a group may

vary depending on the state of the object. Use of cycles en-sures that the list of verbs is a closed list.

Step 3. Position verbs and objects on the two axes.Arrange all of the verbs, such as monitor, optimize, plan,verify, design, commission, and so on, in an order of increas-

ing difficulty on the x-axis (columns). Rearrange all theobjects (components, functional units, process units andso on) vertically in an increasing order of complexity. Thisensures no overlap between tasks (shown in cells) and alsopermits linking of different job levels to different sets oftasks. The job levels increase diagonally as one moves awayfrom the origin.

Step 4. Derive the K-A map. From the O/E map, derivethe K-A map by reverse engineering each cell on the O/Emap. For example, if the task is Monitor process lines askthe questions: How do you define monitor? What specificsteps are involved? Define process lines as explicitly aspossible. Break down all the answers for a given task into

facts, procedures, concepts and principles and then listthem on the y-axis (rows) of the K-A grid. Use Blooms andother taxonomies [24] to define the relevant levels (three

Phase 2

Phase 1

Phase 3

O/E map

Overcome (what?)

Applcablemapscompletedby employees

Maps for eachjob role andpostoncompletedby managersand experts

Ablty (how?)

K-A map

Competencygaps

Tranngnterventon

plan

L0 L1Knowledge

andskills

Acton verbs

Objects

L2 L3

To be To be As s As s

FIGURE 2.

Ths igure showsthe process fordevelopng tran-ng plans, dvdednto the threeproject phases

TABLE 1. Ths lst of typcal artfacts contans explct knowl-edge that operators need to nteract wth n order to mprovether competences n a process plant envronment

TABLE 1. TYPICAL ARTIFACTS

Typical resources for knowledge and skills foreach process unit

Commonto all pro-cess units

Plots and diagrams

Large control diagrams

Process and instrumentation diagrams

Process startup and shutdown sequence dia-grams

Plot plan

Electrical line diagramsManuals

Unit process description manual X

Shutdown, startup and emergency procedures X

Field training guides X

Board training guides X

RWD exercises and analysis strategies X

Distributed control system X

Advanced process control X

System isolation

Fundamentals

Fundamentals of regulatory control XFundamentals of advanced control X

Refinery process fundamentals X

Procedures

Process description manual methodology


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or four) of cognitive, affectiveand psychomotor processing.Write competency statementsfor each cell in the K-A grid.One competency statement iswritten for each artifact foreach level. A competency state-ment includes objective andobservable attitude expressed,product created or behaviordemonstrated by a person atthe selected level of develop-

ment for the selected artifact.Case study. Discussed belowis a case history that illus-trates how to map the compe-tencies of petroleum-refinery operators and maintenancetechnicians. There are around 717 oil refineries worldwideof which about 132 are located in the U.S. [9]. Operatorsare the eyes and ears of the enterprise closest to the unit.They play a significant role in ensuring safe operation, reg-ulatory compliance and high uptime for petroleum-refineryunits. Maintenance technicians ensure integrity, reliabilityand safe operation of all the assets. Operators and main-tenance technicians work in round-the-clock in shifts. A

typical refinery with ten process units employs about 300operators and about 100 maintenance technicians.

Acknowledging the potential threat created when knowl-edge walks out the door over the next five years, Ecopet-rol, S.A.s petroleum-refining business unit, which operatestwo major refineries in Colombia, set the following strate-gic goal for its refining business unit: By the end of 2011,Ecopetrol will have 80% of all its professionals working at100% of their competency level. In 2007, Ecopetrol begandeveloping competency maps for refinery engineers. Themapping process was based on the new visual frameworkthat resolved many of the issues with the traditional ap-proaches. The maps for engineers were completed in 2008

and a training program was launched in 2009 to bridge theidentified competency gaps.

In 2009, Ecopetrol decided to extend the same competency-

mapping approach used by engineers to all other profession-als at the petroleum refineries in Barrancabermeja, and Cart-agena, Colombia. As of this writing, competency maps havebeen created for operators and maintenance technicians, anda training program is underway at those facilities.

Figure 3 shows a section of an O/E map for process plantoperators. The complexity of objects increases as one trav-els up the y-axis (rows). Individual components appear atthe bottom, and large integrated systems are at the top of

they-axis. For plant operators, the object cycle of relevanceis the plant life cycle.

The plant life cycle states are shown on the x-axis. Oneof the states of this plant lifecycle is the normal operationsstate. Under this state, the process executed by the opera-tors is the problem identification and reporting process.The x-axis (columns) in Figure 3 shows the action verbsarranged by ascending degree of difficulty of execution asone moves away from the origin. The letters B, C, D and soon that are shown in the cells of Figures 3 and 4 representdifferent job levels for plant operators. Levels B, C and Dare for field operators. Levels E and F are job-levelsof board or panel operators responsible for monitoring

entire process units.Figure 4 shows an O/E map for maintenance technicians

specializing in electrical equipment items. The representa-

FIGURE 3. Each cell in thegrid represents a task, and thegrid shows how tasks of opera-tors change with their job lev-els (B, C, D, and so on)

FIGURE 4. Each cell in the grid represents a task, and the grid shows how the tasks con-ducted by electrical maintenance technicians change as their job levels advance (B, C, D, andso on)

You & Your Job


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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2011 57

tive activity cycle for maintenance technicians is the repairorder cycle. It is nested under the equipment or plant life-cycle. The x-axis (columns) in Figure 4 shows the action

verbs in the repair order cycle arranged by degree of dif-ficulty as one goes from left to right. The letters B, C, Dand so on that are shown in cells are job levels for mainte-nance technicians.

Table 1 shows a list of typical artifacts divided intodrawings, manuals, fundamentals and procedures thatoccupy the vertical axis of the K-A map for the board opera-tors. Table 2 shows a section of the competency map for themaintenance technicians. Note that the competency state-ments shown in the cells of the grid in Table 2 are written asexternally observable actions or outcomes that can be usedto verify the level of each learners development.

FindingsWe gained new insights from the process of applyingthis new framework and from the deliverables created bythe process. It is important to make the competency-map-

ping process visual and develop it from the bottom up. Themain success factor for the project was that the operatorsand maintenance technicians quickly recognized the valueof the approach. This removed the cognitive barriers to itsimplementation. The visual nature of the process made iteasy to explain to both the company executives and the em-ployees. The managers saw how the maps can be used to

identify strategic gaps, develop hiring plans and providecareer guidance to new operators and maintenance techni-cians. The hierarchical breakdown of competencies allowedfor highly pinpointed training interventions to be selectedto bridge specific competency gaps.

Operators and maintenance technicians in the refiningbusiness share many common traits. The study showed

that the following common competencies problem-solv-ing, troubleshooting, and systems-thinking capabilities are required to move up in the job levels for both. The studyalso showed that these two types of professionals opera-tors and maintenance technicians share over 30 compe-tencies that are related to topics such as company vision,mission and values, organization structures, Hazop analy-sis and more. Operators and maintenance technicians alsouse many common software tools for such activities as datagathering, documentation and communication. Since op-erators and maintenance technicians are expected to worktogether, the identification of many common competenciescreates an opportunity to conduct joint training sessions,

which in turn will save costs and will help improve theteamwork between the two groups.

However, there are overt differences in how the twojobs are organized, and there are subtle differences in themindsets that are required to be good at each job. Opera-tors generally start as field operators. The main focus offield operators is equipment items such as pumps, tur-

TABLE 2. Shown here are examples of competency statements wrtten n a style and format that can be used to objectvelyassess the qualicatons of electrcal mantenance techncans

References1. Merrill, D., Component display theory, in

Instructional Design Theories and Models:An Overview of their Current States, C.M.Reigeluth (ed),Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Er-lbaum, 1983.

2. Bloom B.S., Taxonomy of Educational Objec-tives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain,David McKay Co., New York, 1956.

3. Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S., and Masia,B.B., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,

the Classification of Educational Goals.Handbook II: Affective Domain, DavidMcKay Co., New York, 1973.

4. Simpson E.J., The Classification of Edu-cational Objectives in the Psychomotor Do-main, Washington, D.C., Gryphon House,1972.

5. Ranade, S.M., A competency framework forrefinery process engineers, Hydrocarbon

Proc., July 2008.

6. Ranade, S.M., et al., Competency mapping,Mech. Eng., Feb. 2010, p. 53.

7. Ranade, S.M., Reframe jobs; Reap rewards,People & Strategy, July 2010.

8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDCA, AccessedJan. 2011.

9. BERA: Issue 5/6. The Oil & Gas Industry:Refining (Business Reference Services, Li-brary of Congress), Winter 2005/Spring 2006,

Washington, D.C., U.S. Library of Congress,Issue 5/6. 10. http://www.loc.gov/rr/business/BERA/issue5/refining.html, Accessed Jan.2011.

TABLE 2. EXAMPLES OF COMPETENCY STATEMENTS

L1: Remember and understand L2: Apply and analyze L3: Evaluate and create

Verbs indicatingthe cognitiveprocessinglevels >

Explain, retrieve, list, tabulate,interpret, describe, summarize,classify, compare, execute,forecast

Implement, use, predict, illustrate,calculate, prepare, produce,executve, classify, experiment,build, graph, organize, differenti-ate, achieve

Generate, evaluate, critique, plan,handle, review, recognize, train,audit, conclude, act, combine, re-pair, update, organizeArtifacts

Professionalism,ethics and integ-rity guidelines

Describe rules and behaviorthat demand corporate profes-sionalism, ethics and integrity.Explain these values from thecompany policies.

Illustrate the professionalism,ethics, and integrity topicsthrough an example or any con-crete situation. Differentiate theprinciples and ethical values ofresponsibility and integrity

Recognize the behavior contrary tocorporate professionalism, ethicsand integrity. Train on Ecopetroleethics code

Process andinstrumenta-tion diagrams(P&IDs)

Describe the content and ap-plication of the informationincluded in the P&IDs

Relate and use the informationderived from the P&IDs to his orher activities

Guide the maintenance functionaccording to the information andsequence of P&IDs. Identify criticalzones and critical equipment inthe plants. Train on the interpreta-tion and application of the P&IDs

Software for cap-turing real-timeplant data

Describe the data generatedby instruments and equip-ment in realtime in the processplants, including the PI soft-ware in the distributed controlsystem (DCS)

Interpret the data generated byinstruments and equipment inrealtime in the process plants todetermine the operation condi-tion of the equipment

Train on the use of data generatedby instruments and equipment inrealtime in the process plants

IEEE 1184 guide

for Batteries forUninterruptiblePower SupplySystems

Describe the content of the IEEE

1184 standard guide

Relate the IEEE 1184 standard

guide to his or her activities

Develop and modify the content of

the training materials based on thestandard IEEE 1184 materials. Trainon the use and application of theIEEE 1184 guide


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You & Your Job

bines, tanks and so on. When they become board or paneloperators their emphasis shifts to process units such as anaromatics unit, ethylene unit, steam system and so on. Thisparallels the career-development path of process engineers.

Maintenance technicians start by focusing on equipmentcomponents (rotors, shafts, welds and so on) and eventu-ally shift to equipment systems. But unlike operators, themaintenance technicians are routinely organized by spe-cialty areas such as mechanical, electrical and so on. Thus,their career progression often parallels those of mechanicaland electrical engineers

For plant operators, the core process is problem identifica-tion and solution. By comparison, the core process for main-tenance technicians is the repair-order cycle. The work ofmaintenance technicians is more structured and regulatedthan that of operators. This means that operators have tocultivate the ability to improvise on demand without risk-

ing the safety of the plant. Meanwhile, maintenance techni-cians have to be more cognizant of newer techniques, regula-tions and budgets relative to the operators. n

Edited by Suzanne Shelley

AcknowledgementsThe views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authorsand do not necessarily represent the views and opinions of any other en-tity mentioned in this article. The authors are grateful to Ecopetrol, S.A.smaintenance discipline leaders and operations team members, who pro-

vided useful insights, shared experiences and participated in the creationof the competency maps. Special mention must be made of Angela Corrales-Ecopetrol, S.A.s operational excellence team leader for the Barrancaber-meja refinery, for her unwavering support for this initiative.

Authors

Saidas M. (Sai) Ranade is a manager for process andproduct innovation in RWD Technology, LLCs energypractice (55 Waugh Drive Suite 200, Houston, TX 77007;Email: [email protected]). He has a B.S.Ch.E. fromU.I.C.T, Mumbai, India. Saidas earned his Ph.D. inchemical engineering from the University of Houston,where he also taught thermodynamics. He is the prin-cipal developer of the competency model and tools de-scribed in this article.

Jorge Eliecer Rodriguez Gomez is a program leaderof maintenance excellence for Ecopetrol S.A.s Barran-cabermeja refinery. He is an electrical and electronicsengineer (Industrial University of Santander, Colom-bia), a certified maintenance and reliability professional(CMRP), and a candidate for a masters degree in indus-trial engineering with an emphasis in refining and pet-rochemicals management (University of the Andes, Co-lombia). He has also held the positions of maintenancecoordinator and metrology leader at the refinery.

Rafael Vasquez Ortiz is a training leader for opera-tional excellence for Ecopetrol, S.A.s Barrancabermejarefinery in Colombia. Prior to his present role, he was anoperations supervisor for four years. He started his ca-reer with Ecopetrol almost 19 years ago, as an operator,and has operations experience in many refinery unitsincluding those producing amine, sulfur recovery andethylene.

Juan Carlos Rocha Montano is a senior technical en-gineer in RWD Technologies, LLCs Bogota, Colombia,office. He earned his B.S.E.E. from Colombia National

University. He has been a project manager and main-tenance manager for a petrochemical company. His cur-rent interests include energy conservation, knowledgetheories and training for adults.

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