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11.
San Alfonsoy la Ciencia de los santos
DENNIS J. BILLY*
En 1773, san Alfonso public una breve obra titulada: Reflexiones devotas
sobre diversos puntos de espritu para gua de las almas que desean avanzar
en el Amor divino1. Esta popular pieza de lectura espiritual busca ayudar a sus
lectores a profundizar en su relacin con Dios y crecer en su amor. Para
conseguir este fin, Alfonso propone cuarenta y cinco breves meditaciones y un
amplio espectro de cuestiones sobre la vida moral espiritual.
Entre estas reflexiones, incluye una exposicin sobre lo que l llama la
ciencia de los santos que, para l, es simplemente conocer el amor de Dios 2.
Mi propsito en este trabajo es examinar la presentacin que hace Alfonso de
este importante elemento de su visin moral espiritual. Pondr especial nfasis
en su manera de argumentar y en el modo en que conduce a sus lectores a lo
largo del proceso de conversin.
I. UNODEMUCHOS
* * Profesor en la Academia Alfonsiana, Roma.1 A. DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni devote sopra diversi punti di spirito a pro delle anime che
desiderano avanzarsi nel divino amore, in: ID., Opere ascetiche, vol. 2, Marietti, Torino 1846,249-316. [Traduccin inglesa: Pious Reflections on Different Points of Spirituality to GuideSouls that Desire to Advance in the Love of God, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), The Complete Works ofSaint Alfonso de Liguori, vol. 2, Benzinger Brothers, New York-Cincinnati-St. Louis 1886, 171-306].
2 La scienza desanti sapere amar Dio. Cf. Ibdem, 257; (Pious Reflections...,189).
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Desde el comienzo es importante hacer notar que el estudio de Alfonso
sobre la ciencia de los santos es una de las muchas meditaciones de una
obra especficamente diseada para conducir a otros a la santidad. Para este
fin, l mismo ley cada da un poco de esta pequea obra y animaba a otros a
hacer lo mismo. Debido a que cada meditacin es independiente y relacionada
con las dems en un sentido laxo y temtico, ofrece a sus lectores una ayuda
excelente para la meditacin diaria. Parece que Alfonso escribi esta obra con
este propsito especficamente en su mente3.
La mayor parte de las reflexiones siguen el mismo esquema tripartito: (1) un
breve ttulo, que introduce el tema (2) una meditacin, que lo desarrolla a
travs de un argumento racional y una rica seleccin de fuentes relevantes de
la tradicin catlica, y (3) una oracin conclusiva, que busca incitar al lector a
una oracin sentida desde el corazn 4. La reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia
de los santos, la sexta en esta coleccin, difiere de este formato literario
subyacente slo en que aade a la oracin un ejemplo histrico relativamentereciente para demostrar su punto de vista 5. El uso de este exemplum coloca
esta sexta reflexin como algo aparte de la mayora de las otras que forman la
coleccin, y ofrece a sus lectores un punto concreto de referencia desde el cual
medir su progreso en la vida moral espiritual 6. Por esta razn, el exemplum
debera entenderse formando parte integral de la meditacin y no como un
apndice innecesario o una ocurrencia literaria posterior.
Como textos para la meditacin, las reflexiones de Alfonso estn dirigidas al
corazn y diseadas para conducir a sus lectores hacia actos fervientes de
3
En una carta a la Hermana Brianna Carafa del monasterio de S. Marcellino en Npoles,fechada el 8 de septiembre de 1773, Alfonso escribe: Leo tambin algo cada da de laotra obrita titulada Reflexiones Devotas, etc.. Quisiera haga lo mismo; pues la compuseespecialmente para aquellas almas que desean entregarse completamente a Dios. Ver:Letters of St. Alfonso Maria de Liguori, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., vol. 2, 513. Para unainformacin sobre el original italiano, verOpera omnia SantAlfonso de Liguori, Lettera n.0001449 (http://www.eulogos.it/lettere/0001449.htm).
4 La mayora de las meditaciones de Alfonso en otros escritos siguen la misma estructurabsica. Ver, por ejemplo, su Via della salute, en: A. DE LIGUORI, Opere ascetiche, vol. 10,Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Roma 1968, 7-133; [Traduccin inglesa: The Way ofSalvation, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., 17-169].
5 Este exemplum se refiere a la conversin de Pietro Metastasio, el poeta de la corteimperial. Ver: A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1),258; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1),190-191].
6 La sola excepcin es la reflexin decimosptima titulada, Della confidenza in Ges
Cristo. Ver: Ibdem, 275-277; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1),225-229].
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oracin. No fueron escritas para resistir el intenso examen del telogo
profesional y no se debe esperar que produzcan frutos a ese nivel. Viniendo de
la mano de una de las grandes mentes morales espirituales del siglo dieciocho,
sin embargo, las Reflexiones devotas tienen mucha ms sustancia que su ttulo
podra sugerir en un primer momento. La reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia
de los santos es uno de estos casos. En lugar de ofrecer a sus lectores una
cadena de sentimientos piadosos, les trasmite una enseanza slida que toca
el corazn mismo del mensaje evanglico, es decir, la llamada a la conversin.
II. ELSIGNIFICADODE CIENCIA
Antes de continuar, deberamos decir algo sobre el uso del trmino ciencia
a lo largo de la reflexin.
Alfonso comienza diciendo que hay dos clases de ciencias en el mundo:
una celestial, otra mundana7
. Esta estricta divisin trae a la mente ladescripcin paulina de la lucha entre la carne y el espritu y la descripcin de
san Agustn de la continua lucha entre la ciudad de Dios y la ciudad del
hombre8. Un tipo de ciencia completamente opuesta al otro y puede no tener
nada que ver uno con otro. Esta perspectiva refleja una comprensin de Cristo
contra el mundo en la relacin cristianismo y cultura, que ha sido hecha
famosa por H. Richard Niebuhr9.
En cuanto a la palabra ciencia, el lenguaje de Alfonso permite tres
interpretaciones, dos de las cuales son distintas pero estrechamente
relacionadas, y una tercera que enfoca la cuestin desde otra direccin. Con
respecto a las dos primeras posibilidades, la palabra ciencia puede referirse aun cuerpo objetivo de conocimiento gobernado por un sistema verificable de
reglas y ordenanzas, o a la apropiacin personal de ese conocimiento. De
estas dos posibilidades, la segunda presupone la primera y es la ms
subrayada. La ciencia de cualquier clase sea matemticas, teora literaria o
una disciplina subalterna como la teologa alcanza su pleno potencial cuando
7 Due sorte di scienza vi sono sulla terra, luna celeste, laltra mondana: Ibdem, 257;[Pious Reflections... (nota 1),189].
8 Ro 8,1-12; Ga 5,13-26. Ver tambin AGUSTNDE HIPONA, De civitate Dei, XIV c.28-XVc.2.
9
Cf. H. R. NIEBUHR, Christ and Culture, Harper & Row, New York 1951, 83-115.
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la persona humana la integra como un cuerpo vivo de conocimiento. Esta
comprensin de la ciencia reconoce las divisiones clsicas de conocimiento
objetivo y subjetivo, pero da una clara preferencia al segundo10.
En la tercera posibilidad, el trmino ciencia se refiere no tanto a un cuerpo
de conocimiento en el sentido objetivo o subjetivo, sino al encuentro
experiencial cara-a-cara con otra persona. En la ciencia de los santos, este
otro es Dios mismo. Esta posibilidad se basa en la diferencia entre conocer
sobre alguien y conocer a alguien personalmente. Con su insistencia en el
crecimiento en santidad y en el conocimiento experiencial de lo sagrado, se
asemeja ms a la visin monstica de la teologa, que a la escolstica, con su
fuerte nfasis en clarificar el objeto de la revelacin 11. Es tambin congruente
con el fuerte nfasis devocional de la devotio moderna tardomedieval en su
sospecha sobre el aprendizaje acadmico y sofisticado 12. Cuando se refiere a la
ciencia de los santos, Alfonso reconoce esta ltima posibilidad como la ms
importante: La ciencia de los santos es conocer el amor de Dios13
. En estecontexto, para Alfonso ciencia tiene que ver con (1) conocimiento y (2) el
amor de Dios. A pesar de que otras posibles interpretaciones no quedan
excluidas de esta simple definicin, el conocimiento al que Alfonso parece
estar refirindose es el conocimiento experiencial de lo divino. Tal conocimiento
no es mstico, en el sentido estricto de experiencias extticas extraordinarias de
lo divino, es ms cercano a los dones del Espritu de conocimiento y sabidura,
que corresponden y completan las virtudes teologales de la fe y la caridad 14.
10 La diferencia entre conocimiento objetivo y subjetivo se remonta a la distincin finisquo/finis cuius de Toms de Aquino. Cf. Summa theologiae, I-II, q. 1, a. 8, resp.
11
Para una comparacin entre teologa monstica y escolstica, ver B. P. GAYBBA,Aspects of the Medieval History of Theology, University of South Africa, Pretoria 1988, 52-57.
12 Cf. O. GRNDLER, Devotio Moderna in: JILL RAITT (ed.), Christian Spirituality: HighMiddle Ages and Reformation, Crossroad, New York 1988,176-93.
13 Cf. nota 2.14 Alfonso probablemente hace derivar la expresin ciencia de los santos (la scienza
desanti) de la definicin de doctrina sagrada dada por Toms de Aquino como cienciasubalterna: Et hoc modo sacra doctrina est scientia: quia procedit ex principiis notislumine superioris scientiae, quae scilicet est scientia Dei et beatorum, Summa theologiae,I, q. 1, a. 2, resp. Sobre la fuerte conexin que establece Toms de Aquino entre ladoctrina sagrada y la sabidura cristiana, verSumma theologiae, I, q. 1, a. 6, res. Para sudoctrina sobre los dones de conocimiento y sabidura, ver Summa theologiae, II-II, q. 9,aa.1-4; q. 23, prol.; q. 45, aa. 1-6. Debe notarse que, para Toms de Aquino, la accin de
los dones del Espritu constituye la verdadera esencia del misticismo cristiano y es un
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cuidadoso. En el siglo dieciocho, toda la base de la casustica moral
descansaba sobre el peso que poda ser atribuido a las opiniones de
autoridades reconocidas. A nivel popular y devocional, las citas de las
autoridades eran utilizadas como un modo de poner a la gente en contacto con
la tradicin viva de la Iglesia. Las autoridades citadas eran normalmente las de
la Escritura y los Padres de la Iglesia, los cuales eran citados abundantemente
para asegurar al fiel la consistencia y profundidad teolgica del mensaje que
estaban recibiendo16.
Alfonso sazona su reflexin sobre la ciencia de los santos con una muy
generosa seleccin de autoridades. stas vienen en primer lugar de la Escritura,
los Padres de la Iglesia, los santos, y algunas fuentes seculares bien conocidas.
Por orden de aparicin, sus citas de la Escritura incluyen: 1Cor 3,19; 1Cor
8,1; Sant 4,6; Dt 32,29; Sl 75,6; Sb 10,10; Mt 11,25; y 1Cor 2,2 17. Estas
referencias vienen bien va cita directa o bien por alusin, y estn
seleccionadas por el modo en que contrastan la sabidura celestial con la delmundo. En cuanto a los Padres de la Iglesia, se cita dos veces a san Juan
Crisstomo y dos a san Agustn18. Las citas del primero se refieren
respectivamente a la naturaleza racional del hombre y a la meditacin sobre la
muerte como un camino para el aprendizaje de la vanidad del mundo; por su
parte, las del segundo tienen que ver respectivamente con la importancia de
amar a Dios sobre todas las cosas y cmo los ignorantes son capaces de
levantarse y asaltar el cielo. En cuanto a los santos, Alfonso recurre a san
Francisco, san Pascual, y san Juan de Dios como ejemplos de los que, a pesar
de un pobre conocimiento mundano, fueron particularmente destacados en la
sabidura de Dios19
. En contraste con estas figuras santas, Alfonso mencionacmo la muerte termina con las glorias de este mundo; as afirma que hombres
como Cicern, Demstenes y Ulpiano no tienen ya nada de qu presumir20.
16 Para la definicin de autoridad y del argumento de autoridad, cf. B. MONDIN,Autorit,in: B. MONDIN (ed.), Dizionario enciclopedico del pensiero di san Tommaso dAquino ,Studio Domenicano, Bologna 1991, 73-74. Para una visin ms general, cf. L. K RIEGER,Authority, in: PH. P. WEINER (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, vol.. 1, CharlesScribners Sons, New York 1973, 141-162, especialmente 147.
17 A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1), 257-58; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1),187-190].18 Ibdem, 257-58; [Pious Reflections...,187-189].19 Ibdem, 258; [Pious Reflections...,189].20
Ibdem, 257; [Pious Reflections...,189].
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En este uso de la autoridad, Alfonso usa la Escritura, los Padres, los santos
y las figuras seculares para presentar el contraste entre sabidura celestial y
mundana. Su intencin al usarlos es ayudar a sus lectores a hacer del
conocimiento del amor de Dios una prioridad en sus propias vidas.
2. Rationes
Adems de las citas de autoridades, Alfonso hace uso de argumentos
racionales para explicar su comprensin de la ciencia de los santos. Y lo hace
incluso cuando parte de su plan es dejar expuesta la debilidad del conocimiento
mundano.
Desde los tiempos de los apologistas cristianos, la razn era valorada como
una herramienta til para exponer las verdades de la fe cristiana.
Probablemente la mejor evidencia del profundo respeto del cristianismo por las
intuiciones de la razn sean las muchas sntesis teolgicas basadas en unamplio espectro de sistemas filosficos, la sntesis neoplatnica de Agustn y la
sntesis aristotlica de Aquino, por nombrar slo unos pocos. Aunque la
comprensin de lo que constituye un argumento racional ha evolucionado en el
curso de la historia, los pensadores cristianos han hecho buen uso de sus
contornos cambiantes para profundizar en su comprensin de la fe. Alfonso no
es una excepcin21.
Tomando la Escritura y las autoridades de la tradicin de la Iglesia como
punto de partida, Alfonso generalmente se mueve de un modo silogstico para
alcanzar una conclusin lgica. Un ejemplo de este uso del argumento racional
aparece pronto en su reflexin:Pero esta ciencia mundana es locura y necedad a los ojos de Dios. La sabidura
del mundo es necedad con Dios. Es necedad, pues hace necios a los que la
cultivan; los hace necios y como las bestias, pues les ensea a gratificar sus
apetitos carnales como las bestias. San Juan Crisstomo escribi: Llamamos
hombre al que preserva la imagen completa de un hombre; y cul es la imagen
del hombre? Ser racional. De modo que si una bestia actuara de acuerdo con
21 Para una presentacin histrica del uso de la razn en la teologa cristiana, cf. J. A.BONSOR,Athens and Jerusalem: The Role of Philosophy in Theology, Paulist Press, New
York and Mahwah, N.J. 1993, 1-97.
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la razn, deberamos decir que tal bestia acta como hombre; del mismo modo
decimos que un hombre que acta basndose en sus apetitos sensuales y de
modo contrario a la razn, acta como una bestia 22.
Alfonso comienza su argumentacin con una identificacin entre necios y
bestias. El conocimiento mundano, declara, ensea a la persona a satisfacer
sus apetitos sensuales. Al hacerlo, la persona se comporta como las bestias.
Una vez establecido este presupuesto subyacente, el resto del argumento fluye
con suavidad. Ser creado a imagen de Dios significa actuar de acuerdo con la
razn. Si un animal actuara de tal modo, sera descrito como actuando como
un hombre. As, si las acciones de un hombre son contrarias a la razn, es
razonable afirmar que est actuando como una bestia. El modo de razonar de
Alfonso aqu es bastante lgico. Usa la razn para apoyar su tesis de que el
conocimiento mundano es necedad a los ojos de Dios23.
3. Exempla
Lo que distingue la reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santos de
las dems meditaciones en el libro es el exemplum, tomado de la vida de Pedro
Metastasio, que aade despus de la oracin conclusiva. Como se apunt ms
arriba, el uso de los exempla era una caracterstica comn de la predicacin
medieval y era una herramienta ampliamente usada en tiempos de Alfonso.
Alfonso tambin usa exempla en muchas de sus obras devocionales de modo
que su presencia en esta coleccin de meditaciones no debera sorprender a
nadie. El propsito de un exemplum es ofrecer hechos recientes que ayuden a
22 Ma questa scienza di mondo stoltezza e vera pazzia presso Dio: Sapientia enimhuius mundi stultitia est apud Deum. Pazzia, perch tale scienza rende pazzi tutti coloroche la coltivano: li rende pazzi e simili alle bestie, mentre loro insegna a secondare gliappetiti sensuali come fanno le bestie. Scrive s. Giovanni Crisostomo: Hominem illumdicimus, qui imaginem hominis salvam retinet; quae autem imago hominis? rationalemesse. Per ritener limagine duomo bisogna essere ragionevole, cio operare secondo laragione. Dal che ricavasi che, siccome se vi fosse una bestia che sempre operassesecondo la ragione si direbbe che quella bestia opera da uomo; cos allincontro un uomoche opera secondo lappetito desensi e contro la ragione deve dirsi che opera da bestia.Cf. A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1),257; [Pious Reflections...,187-188].
23 Un buen ejemplo de uso alfonsiano de la razn en sus escritos ascticos puede verseen su refutacin del jansenismo en: A. DE LIGUORI, Del gran mezzo della preghiera, in: ID.,Opere ascetiche, vol. 2, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 1962, 117-44. [Traduccin
inglesa: The Great Means of Salvation, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., vol. 2, 161-200].
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la gente a identificarse con el mensaje trasmitido en el discurso. A pesar de que
el exemplum en este caso particular viene al final de la meditacin e incluso
despus de la oracin, juega un importante papel en la presentacin que hace
Alfonso del significado de la ciencia de los santos y debera ser considerado
como una parte integrante de toda la reflexin24.
Puesto que el exemplum es generalmente una narracin histrica breve, es
importante tomarlo en su totalidad. La historia entera tal como fue escrita por
Alfonso es presentada a continuacin:
Permtaseme aqu expresar la gran consolacin que tuve hace pocos das por
una informacin concerniente al objeto de las consideraciones precedentes, la
ciencia de los santos. Me han asegurado que, despus de recibir mucho aplauso
en toda Europa por sus composiciones poticas, las cuales son tan nocivas
como hermosas (me refiero a las que slo tratan del amor profano), pues cuanto
ms tiernas sus expresiones, ms estn calculadas para encender en los pechos
de los jvenes las perniciosas llamas de las afecciones impuras, el celebradoseor Pedro Metastasio ha publicado un librito en prosa, en el cual expresa la
detestacin de sus escritos sobre amor profano, y declara que, si estuviera en su
poder, los retirara y los hara desaparecer del mundo, incluso a costa de su
sangre. Y he sido informado de que sus composiciones poticas se reducen
ahora a piezas sobre materia moral o espiritual, que escribe slo para cumplir
con su obligacin de poeta con la corte imperial. Vive retirado en su propia casa,
llevando una vida de oracin. Esta informacin me ha producido una consolacin
inefable; pues su declaracin pblica y su muy laudable ejemplo ayudar a
desengaar a muchos jvenes que buscan adquirir un gran nombre con
similares composiciones de amor profano. Es cierto que, por esta retractacin, elseor Metastasio se merece ms encomios que mereciera por la publicacin de
mil obras poticas; pues stas pudieron ser alabadas por los hombres, pero
ahora l es alabado por Dios. Pues, como antes detest su vanidad en estimarse
con tales composiciones (no hablo de sus piezas sagradas, que son excelentes y
merecedoras de aplauso), ahora no cesar de alabarle; y si se me permitiera
24 Para una literatura de exempla, cf. O. GREGORIO ET ALII (eds.), S. Alfonso M. DeLiguori, Opere ascetiche, Introduzione generale, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma1960, 239-283. Uno de los mejores usos de ejemplos de S. Alfonso lo encontramos en Leglorie di Maria cf. ALFONSO M. DE LIGUORI, Opere ascetiche, vol. 10, Redentoristi,SantAlfonso, Roma 1935; (Traduccin inglesa: The Glories of Mary, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o.
c., vols. 7-8).
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besara sus pies, viendo que se ha convertido voluntariamente en el censor de
sus obras, y que ahora l desea verlas desaparecer del mundo entero, a precio,
dice l, incluso de su propia sangre25.
Es interesante notar que el otro nico lugar de las Reflexiones Devotas
donde Alfonso usa un exemplum de modo similar es en la reflexin
decimosptima titulada, Sobre la confianza en Jesucristo 26. A pesar de que el
tema de este exemplum es ms difuso, la conversin de Pedro Metastasio (y la
alegra de Alfonso por ella) es subrayado como un punto central. Cuando
leemos estas reflexiones, es claro que Alfonso aadi estos exempla para
sealar a sus lectores, con una evidencia concreta, el movimiento de la gracia
de Dios en medio de ellos. En el contexto presente, Alfonso ayuda a sus
lectores a ver que la ciencia de los santos comienza con el aqu-y-ahora y
no es simplemente algo a lo que aspirar en el ms all. Para los lectores de
esta reflexin, Metastasio representa alguien que ha alcanzado las cimas del
conocimiento mundano, una hazaa que le ha aportado una considerable sumade riqueza y reconocimiento pblico. El vuelco completo de su parte, mostrado
incluso por su deseo de derramar su propia sangre para poder ver su poesa
profana destruida, presenta a los lectores un ejemplo concreto de lo que
25 Mi si permetta qui di manifestare una grande consolazione che pochi giorni sono mirec una certa notizia la quale cade a proposito della materia di sopra considerata dellascienza desanti. Mi fu assicurato per cosa certa, che il celebre abate signor PietroMetastasio dopo tante lodi ricevute da tutta Europa per le sue composizioni poetiche datealle stampe, che quanto pi belle, tanto sono state pi nocive (intendo di quelle cose chetrattano damor profano); poich le sue espressioni quanto sono state pi tenere e vive,tanto pi han potuto accendere necuori depoveri giovani fiamme perniciose daffettiimpuri; al presente ha dato fuori un libretto in prosa, ove detesta queste sue fatiche e siprotesta che se potesse ritirarle tutte e fare che pi non comparissero al mondo lo farebbead ogni suo costo, anche del suo sangue. Ed in effetto mi dicono che ora non componepi in versi se non alcuni drammi spirituali o morali costretto dallincombenza che tiene dipoeta della corte cesarea, e che sta sempre ritirato in casa a far vita devota e di orazione.Io no ho intesa una consolazione indicibile, perch questa sua pubblica dichiarazione equesto suo lodevolissimo esempio giover a far ravvedere molti giovani ingannati checercano acquistar nome ed onore con simili componenti amorosi. E certo che il signorMetastasio con tal sua dichiarazione merita pi encomio che se avesse dato alla luce millefamosi libri di poesia; mentre con quelli sarebbe lodato dagli uomini ed ora lodato daDio. Quindi ove prima io detestava la di lui vanit in pregarsi di tali suoi componimenti(non parlo dei drammi sacri che sono eccellenti e degni dogni lode), ora non mi sazio dilodarlo, e se mi fosse permesso gli bacerei i piedi, vedendolo fatto da se stesso censore diquelle sue opere, con desiderio di vederle abolite per tutto il mondo a costo (come dice)anche del suo sangue. Cf. A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1),258; [Pious Reflections...,190-91].
26
Cf. nota 6.
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Alfonso ha estado diciendo. Pedro Metastasio no es un santo como san
Francisco de Ass, san Pascual o san Juan de Dios, sino alguien que ha
alcanzado las alturas del conocimiento mundano y sentido todo el peso de sus
vacas promesas. Alfonso incluye este exemplum al final de su reflexin porque
quiere que sus lectores reflexionen sobre su propia situacin ante las vanas
promesas del conocimiento mundano y actuar en consecuencia.
IV. ELUSODELTIEMPO
El uso por Alfonso de estos tres distintos tipos de argumentos auctoritates,
rationes, y exempla es importante para su presentacin de la ciencia de los
santos, porque cada uno de ellos empuja al lector en una particular
perspectiva sobre el significado y naturaleza del tiempo 27. Para entender las
connotaciones ms profundas de la reflexin de Alfonso, el lector debe tener en
cuenta estas tres perspectivas.
1. Auctoritates
Los argumentos de Alfonso desde la autoridad son tomados de la Biblia o
de los Padres de la Iglesia. Ambas fuentes subrayan el papel de la memoria y
de la retrospeccin para la comprensin del lector del tiempo, aunque de
diferentes modos. Las numerosas citas de la Escritura provienen del Antiguo y
Nuevo Testamento, y trasmiten un sentido de los muchos caminos por los
cuales Dios ha hablado a su pueblo a travs de los siglos. Este sentido de
multiplicidad temporal queda claro cuando se tiene en cuenta los muchosgneros literarios que componen la palabra escrita de Dios28. Las citas de
Alfonso representan la palabra de Dios tal como ha sido expresada en variedad
de medios: proverbios, himnos, cartas y los dichos de Jess. Aunque fueron
compuestas hace mucho tiempo, todas estas palabras retienen su significado
para el lector de hoy. Son afirmadas por los comentarios de los Padres de la
Iglesia, tales como Agustn y Crisstomo, cuyas intuiciones muestran que la
27 La conexin entre los tres tipos de argumentacin y el retrato de tiempo viene de J.LEGOFF, o. c., 78-80. La aplicacin a la reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santoses ma.
28
La frase multiplicidad temporal es de J. LEGOFF, o. c., 79.
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palabra de Dios necesita ser escuchada e interpretada de nuevo en cada
poca. Cuando se toman en conjunto, las autoridades de la Escritura y los
Padres de la Iglesia ofrecen una comprensin escatolgica del tiempo, que
recoge el pasado en el presente al tiempo que mira hacia su futuro
cumplimiento. Cuando se aplica a la ciencia de los santos, este enfoque del
ya-pero-todava-no orienta al lector hacia el futuro, a travs del presente, por
va del pasado. Introduce al lector en la historia de la implicacin de Dios con
su pueblo y enciende la confianza para afrontar cualquier reto que el futuro
pueda traer29.
2. Rationes
Los argumentos racionales de Alfonso afirman la naturaleza eterna de la
verdad y la capacidad de la mente humana para percibirla. Subrayan las
funciones invariables y perennes de la verdad en medio del cambio histrico. Elcarcter atemporal de estas afirmaciones reducen la percepcin del tiempo a
un agente limitado e imperfecto. El tiempo no contiene la verdad, sino que es
contenido por ella. Los argumentos de Alfonso confrontan al lector a travs del
medio del presente didctico. No limitado por el tiempo, entran en su
conciencia a travs de las conclusiones sacadas por silogismo o deduccin
lgica. La afirmacin resultante funde las categoras del tiempo y lo eterno y
ofrece al lector la oportunidad de encarnar la verdad en un momento de
intuicin razonada.
A pesar de que puedan parecer intrusas en una meditacin enfocada en
gran medida sobre la futilidad del conocimiento humano, estas rationes
proveen un teln de fondo significativo sobre el cual conduce su reflexin sobre
la ciencia de los santos. Todos los otros tipos de autoridad introducidos por
Alfonso presuponen y utilizan, de algn modo, un elemento de la capacidad de
la razn para alcanzar la verdad. Sin esto, el movimiento de su reflexin no
podra moverse de una intuicin a la siguiente ni podra influenciar a sus
lectores con su poder para persuadir30.
29 Para el uso devocional que Alfonso hace de las autoridades, ver O . GREGORIOET ALII
(eds.), o. c., 329-331.
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3. Exempla
A diferencia de otros tipos de autoridad usados por Alfonso, el exemplum
coloca al lector en la experiencia diacrnica del tiempo. El movimiento narrativo
de un ejemplo histrico reciente familiariza al lector con su propia experiencia
cotidiana. El propsito del exemplum es establecer una conexin con el lector, demodo que las intuiciones expuestas en otras reas de la reflexin tengan un valor
ms inmediato y personal. El exemplum pone carne y hueso a las verdades
abstractas desarrolladas antes en la reflexin por las auctoritates y rationes.
Tambin le invita a considerar la posibilidad de incorporarlos a su propia vida.
Los Exempla a menudo describen un caso de conversin en la vida de un
personaje histrico de reciente memoria. En el caso de la reflexin de Alfonso
sobre la ciencia de los santos, sta se refiere a Pedro Metastasio, el poeta de
la corte imperial, y al rechazo de su poesa profana. Alfonso incluye este
ejemplo en su reflexin por varias razones: la fama de Metastasio, la cualidad
dramtica de su rechazo, la vida de reclusin y oracin que abraz, y su deseode derramar su sangre para defender sus nuevas convicciones. Todas estas
cualidades dan a Alfonso una oportunidad nica. Metastasio es una figura bien
conocida por sus lectores, que alcanza el pinculo de la ciencia mundana y la
rechaza a favor de la celeste. Al incluirlo en su reflexin, invita a sus lectores a
seguir un camino similar de arrepentimiento y conversin de vida31.
En su presentacin de la ciencia de los santos, Alfonso emplea diferentes
tipos de argumentos para subrayar la orientacin ilimitada y polivalente de la
bsqueda de la santidad. A travs de estos argumentos, pasado, presente y
futuro confrontan al lector con la oportunidad de reflexionar sobre su propia
vida y responder a la llamada de la conversin fundamental. Slo de estemodo, se podr llegar a conocer el amor de Dios de un modo ntimo y afirmador
de la vida.
V. LAORACIN
30 La afirmacin de Alfonso sobre la naturaleza eternal de la verdad aparece incluso en suprimera obra publicada, Massime eterne. Ver A. DE LIGUORI, Opere ascetiche, vol. 9,Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 1965, 379-95. [Traduccin inglesa: Maxims ofEternity, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., vol. 1, 387-403].
31 Para el uso general por Alfonso de los exempla, ver O. GREGORIOET ALII (eds.), o. c.,
285-290. Ver tambin nota 24.
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Dada la exposicin que hemos hecho ms arriba del uso alfonsiano del
tiempo, no debera sorprendernos que la oracin a Jess, al final de la
reflexin, contenga referencias especficas al pasado, presente y futuro. Dice
as:
Oh T que eres mi ms verdadero y perfecto amante, dnde encontrar uno
que me haya amado ms que T! Durante mi vida pasada, he perdido mi tiempo
en alcanzar el conocimiento de muchas cosas que no han beneficiado a mi alma
en nada, y no he pensado en conocer cmo amarte. Veo que mi vida se ha
perdido. Percibo que T me llamas a Ti, santo amante. Mira, lo dejo todo; desde
este da en adelante, mi nico pensamiento ser agradarte a Ti, mi ms alto bien.
Me entrego completamente a Ti; acptame; dame ayuda para serte fiel; no deseo
ya ser mo sino todo, todo tuyo. Oh Madre de Dios! Aydame t con tus
oraciones32.
En esta sentida oracin a Jess, Alfonso comienza con el tiempo futuro y
luego se mueve respectivamente en el pasado y el presente. La afirmacinfutura confirma los roles de Jess como el verdadero y perfecto amante;
nadie parecido puede encontrarse en lugar alguno. Esta fuerte afirmacin del
amor de Jess mueve a Alfonso a mirar a su pasado y a reconocer el tiempo
que ha desperdiciado innecesariamente con ocupaciones y a admitirlo
humildemente ante su Seor. Al hacerlo as, inicia un proceso de
arrepentimiento que ltimamente conduce a un deseo de cambio. La oracin
entonces se mueve desde estas afirmaciones en tiempo pasado hacia una
variedad en tiempo presente que refleja un profundo deseo de vivir un
proceso de conversin aqu y ahora: Veo que mi vida se ha perdido... Percibo
que T me llamas... Lo dejo todo... Me entrego completamente a Ti.Este deseo de querer vivir el proceso ntegro de conversin en un solo
momento de intensa purificacin se compensa ms tarde con el reconocimiento
32 O mio vero e perfetto amatore, dove trover io chi mabbia amato quanto mavete amatovoi? Io per lo passato ho perduto il tempo in sapere pi cose che niente mi han giovatoallanima e poco ho pensato a sapere amarvi. Vedo la mia vita perduta. Sento che michiamate al vostro amore: eccomi, lascio tutto: da ogginnanzi lunico mio pensiero sar didarvi gusto, mio sommo bene. Io tutto a voi mi dono, accettatemi voi, datemi aiuto ad esservifedele; io non voglio esser pi mio, ma tutto vostro, tutto, tutto. O Madre di Dio, soccorretemiancora voi colle vostre preghiere. Ver A. DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni devote sopra diversi puntidi spirito a pro delle anime che desiderano avanzarsi nel divino amore , in: ID., Opere
ascetiche, vol. 2, Marietti, Torino 1846, 258; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1), 190].
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de la necesidad de la ayuda de Dios para permanecer fiel. La implicacin aqu
es que el proceso de conversin exige ms que un cambio momentneo del
corazn. La prueba real vendr en los das venideros cuando la propia
resolucin sea probada a travs de las dificultades y tentaciones de la vida
cotidiana. Por esta razn, la peticin de ayuda corre paralela a la orientacin
futura de la oracin inicial. Alfonso desea ser un verdadero y perfecto amante
como Jess, su Seor y Redentor. La oracin de ayuda dirigida a Mara
confirma este deseo y extiende la oracin de una conversacin personal con el
Seor a una oracin que hace espacio (y acoge con todo el corazn) a la
intercesin de los santos.
Alfonso ofrece esta oracin en esta reflexin sobre la ciencia de los santos
primeramente para beneficio de sus lectores. Su energa y espontaneidad
demuestran que no puede provenir de ningn otro lugar que no sea
directamente del corazn y que espera que sea una gua til para sus lectores
en sus propias conversaciones orantes con el Seor. Ms importante, mueve elpunto principal de la reflexin ms all invitando a sus lectores no solamente a
reflexionar sobre el significado de la ciencia de los santos para sus vidas, sino
tambin a hacer algo sobre ello. Cuando es vista desde esta perspectiva, la
oracin es una parte integral de la meditacin. Une las diversas dimensiones
temporales expuestas en el resto de la meditacin, al tiempo que busca guiar a
sus lectores a una experiencia personal de la ciencia de los santos.
VI. CONCLUSIN
El librito de Alfonso Reflexiones devotas ofrece una variedad demeditaciones sobre el crecimiento en la vida moral espiritual. Su meditacin
sobre la ciencia de los santos se centra en un tema particular al presentar un
fuerte contraste entre conocimiento profano y conocimiento sagrado y luego
sita a sus lectores ante la necesidad de elegir uno de los dos.
A pesar de que la palabra ciencia, tal como aparece en la expresin,
puede referirse a un cuerpo objetivo de conocimiento y al modo en que ese
conocimiento es incorporado en el sujeto, su connotacin ms probable tiene
que ver con un conocimiento personal e ntimo de Dios mismo.
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Para mostrar el contraste entre lo sagrado y lo profano, Alfonso emplea
argumentos de autoridad, razn y ejemplo. Puesto que estos mtodos de
demostracin pueden usarse igualmente tanto en escritos seculares como
espirituales, este duro contraste implica tambin un cierto nivel de semejanza
entre los dos. En su enseanza de la ciencia de los santos, Alfonso no
rechaza tanto el valor del aprendizaje humano en s, sino su uso para fines
egostas o egocntricos.
En el anlisis final, la ciencia de los santos no es otra cosa que conocer el
amor de Dios. Este conocimiento personal de lo divino admite varios grados de
intimidad. Aunque no excluye los grados superiores de experiencia mstica,
como es el matrimonio espiritual, stos no son necesarios. Dios quiere que
todos participen de su amistad y distribuye su gracia para hacerlo posible.
Cuando se ve bajo esta luz, la enseanza de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los
santos pone en primer lugar lo nico que importa. Los santos son posedos por
el conocimiento del amor de Dios. Vivir para Dios es su nico deseo, su solaocupacin. A travs de esta reflexin, Alfonso invita a sus lectores a seguir su
gua volviendo sus vidas hacia Dios y practicando el camino de la conversin.
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St. Alphonsus and the Science ofthe Saints
Dennis J. Billy, C.Ss.R.
In 1773, St. Alphonsus published a brief work entitled, Pious Reflections on
Different Points of Spirituality to Guide Souls that Desire to Advance in the Love
of God.33 This popular piece of spiritual reading seeks to help its readers
deepen their relationship with God and to grow in his love. To achieve that aim,
Alphonsus provides forty-five brief meditations on a wide range of topics on the
spiritual moral life. Among these reflections, he includes an exposition of whathe refers to as the science of the saints which, for him, is simply to know the
love of God.34 My purpose in this essay is to examine Alphonsuss
presentation of this important element of his spiritual moral vision. I will give
specific emphasis to his manner of argumentation and the way he leads his
readers along the process of conversion. I will also look at some of the
underlying assumptions of his teaching and offer some comments on his
understanding of growth in the spiritual moral life.
I. ONEOF MANY
At the very outset, it bears noting that Alphonsuss discussion of the science
of the saints is just one of many loosely related meditations of a work
33 ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote sopra diversi punti di spirito a pro delleanime che desiderano avanzarsi nel divino amore, in: G. CACCIATORE (ed.) S. AlfonsoM. De Liguori, Opere aschetiche, vol. 2, Marietti, Turin 1846, 249-316. The Englishtranslation comes from Pious Reflections on Different Points of Spirituality to Guide Soulsthat Desire to Advance in the Love of God, in: EUGENE GRIMM (ed.) The CompleteWorks of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori, vol. 2, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati,and St. Louis, 1886, 171-306.
34 La scienza desanti sapere amar Dio. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessionidivote 257; Pious Reflections 189.
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DENNIS J. BILLY
specifically designed to lead others to sanctity. To this end, he himself read a
little each day from this little work and encouraged others to do the same.
Since each meditation is self-contained and related to the others in only a loose,
thematic sense, it offers its readers an excellent aid for daily meditation.
Alphonsus, it seems, wrote this work specifically with this purpose in mind.35
For the most part, each of the reflections follows the same threefold
structure: (1) a short title, which introduces the theme offered for ones
considerations, (2) a meditation, which develops the theme through rational
argument and a rich selection of relevant sources from the Catholic tradition,
and (3) a closing prayer, which seeks to incite the reader to heartfelt prayer. 36
Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints, the sixth in the collection,
differs from this underlying literary format only in that he adds to the prayer a
relatively recent historical example to bring his point home. 37 His use of this
exemplum sets this sixth reflection apart from most of the others in the
collection and provides his readers with a concrete point of reference with whichto measure their progress in the spiritual moral life. 38 For this reason, the
exemplum should be understood as an integral part of the meditation and not
an unnecessary appendage or a mere literary afterthought.
As texts for meditation, Alphonsuss reflections are directed toward the heart
and designed to lead their readers to fervent acts of prayer. They were not
35 In a letter to Sister Brianna Carafa of the monastery of S. Marcellino in Naples, datedSeptember 8, 1773, Alphonsus writes : I also read every day something of the other littlework, entitled Pious Reflections, etc. I wish you to do the same; for I have composed it
specially for those souls that desire to give themselves entirely to God. See Letters of St.Alphonsus Maria de Liguori, in: E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsusde Liguori, vol. 19, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1892, 513.For information on the Italian original, see Opera omnia SantAlfonso de Liguori, Lettera n.0001449 (http://www.eulogos.it/lettere/0001449.htm).
36 Most of the meditations in Alphonsuss other writings follow this same basic structure.See, for example, his Via della salute, in: O. GREGORIO (ed.) S. Alfonso M. DeLiguori,Opere ascetiche, vol. 10, Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Roma 1968, 7-133; TheWay of Salvation, in: E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori,vol.. 2, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1886, 17-169).
37 This exemplum refers to the conversion of Pietro Metastasio, the poet of the imperialcourt. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 258; Pious Reflections 190-91.
38 The only exception is the seventeenth reflection entitled, Della confidenza in GesCristo. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 275-77; Pious Reflections
225-29.
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St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints
written to withstand the intense scrutiny of the professional theologian and
should not be expected to yield fruits on that level. Coming from the hand of
one of the great spiritual moral minds of the eighteenth century, however, they
provide much more substance than their title, Pious Reflections, might first
seem to suggest. Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints is acase in point. Rather than offering his readers a string of pious sentiments, he
offers them a sound teaching that touches the very heart of the Gospel
message, i.e., the call to conversion.
II. THE MEANINGOF SCIENCE
Before proceeding, something should be said about the use of the term
science throughout the reflection. Alphonsus begins by saying that there are
two kinds of sciences in the world: one heavenly, the other worldly.39 This
stark division calls to mind St. Pauls depiction of the struggle between theflesh and spirit and St. Augustines description of the ongoing struggle
between the city of God and the city of man. 40 One type of science is
completely opposed to and can have nothing to do with the other. This
approach reflects the Christ against the world understanding of the
relationship between Christianity and culture made famous by H. Richard
Niebuhr.41
As far as the actual word science itself is concerned, Alphonsuss language
allows for three possible interpretations, two of which are distinct but closely
related, and a third that approaches the question from another direction. With
respect to the first two possibilities, the word science can refer to an objectivebody of knowledge governed by a verifiable system of rules and ordinances or
to the personal appropriation of that knowledge. From these two possibilities,
the second presupposes the first and is emphasized the most. Science of
whatever sort---be it mathematics, literary theory, or a subalternated discipline
39 Due sorte di scienza vi sono sulla terra, luna celeste, laltra mondana. SeeALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 257; Pious Reflections 189.
40 See Ro 8,1-12 ; Ga 5,13-26. See also AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO, De civitate Dei, XIVc.28-XV c.2.
41
H. R. NIEBUHR, Christ and Culture, Harper & Row, New York 1951, 83-115.
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DENNIS J. BILLY
like theology--- reaches its full potential when it is the human person internalizes
it as a living body of knowledge. This understanding of science recognizes the
classical divisions of objective and subjective knowledge, but gives a clear
preference to the second.42
In the third possibility, the term science refers not so much to a body ofknowledge in the objective or subjective sense, but to the experiential, face-
to-face encounter with another person. As far as the science of the saints is
concerned, this other is God himself. This possibility bases itself on the
difference between knowing about someone and knowing that someone
personally. It resembles more the monastic approach to theology with its focus
on growth in holiness and the experiential knowledge of the sacred than the
scholastic with its strong emphasis on clarifying the object content of
revelation.43 It is also continuous with the strong devotional emphasis of the
late-medieval devotio moderna with its suspicion of sophisticated, academic
learning.44
When referring to the science of the saints Alphonsus recognizesthis last possibility as the most important: The science of the saints is to know
the love of God.45 In this context, science, for Alphonsus has to do with (1)
knowledge and (2) the love of God. Although the other possible
interpretations do not seem to be excluded from this simple definition, the
knowledge, Alphonsus seems to be referring here to the experiential
knowledge of the divine. Such knowledge is not mystical in the strict sense of
extraordinary ecstatic experiences of the divine, but more akin to the Spirits
gifts of knowledge and wisdom that correspond to and complete the theological
virtues of faith and charity.46
42 The difference between objective and subjective knowledge goes back to the finisquo/finis cuius distinction of Thomas Aquinas. See Summa theologiae, I-II, q. 1, a. 8,resp.
43 For a comparison between monastic and scholastic theology, see B. P. GAYBBA,Aspects of the Medieval History of Theology, University of South Africa, Pretoria 1988, 52-57.
44 See O. GRNDLER, Devotio Moderna in: Christian Spirituality: High Middle Ages andReformation, Jill Raitt (ed.) Crossroad, New York, 1988,176-93.
45 See above n. 2.46 Alphonsus probably derives the phrase the science of the saints ( la scienza desainti)
from Aquinass definition of sacred doctrine as a subalternated science: Et hoc modosacra doctrina est scientia: quia procedit ex principiis notis lumine superioris scientiae,
quae scilicet est scientia Dei et beatorum. See Summa theologiae, I, q. 1, a. 2, resp. For
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St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints
III. THREE KINDSOF ARGUMENT
In his presentation of the science of the saints, Alphonsus employees three
different kinds of proofs: auctoritates, rationes, and exempla. These common
forms of argument have three roots deep in the medieval ages and, byAlphonsuss time, had become a mainstay of popular preaching.47 Their use in
a work of spiritual reading such as the Pious Reflections points to the close
bond that Alphonsus saw between a pastoral activity such as preaching and
growth in the spiritual moral life. Since the goal of preaching and spiritual
reading was fundamentally the same---to help a person draw closer to Jesus
Christ---it makes perfect sense that elements from one form of expression might
eventually find their way in the other. This possibility becomes even more likely
when one realizes that spiritual reading was often looked upon as an internal
preparation that helped the preacher deepen his own relationship with the Lord.
When seen in this light, Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saintsemploys many of the same methods of demonstration as a sermon, the only
difference being that it is reflected upon in the quiet of ones heart rather than
expressed aloud in a public liturgical setting. A look at the use that Alphonsus
makes of all three arguments in this reflection bears this out.
1. Auctoritates. During Alphonsuss day, the use of authorities was already
a well-known method of establishing a theological point. The writings of the
Church fathers were filled with citations from Scripture to support their
arguments. The use of authority was also an integral part of the scholastic
method, where divergent voices from the tradition were subjected to careful
dialectical scrutiny. In the eighteenth century, the whole basis of moral
the close bond drawn by Aquinas between sacred doctrine and Christian wisdom, seeSumma theologiae, I, q. 1, a. 6, res. For Aquinass teaching on the gifts of knowledge andwisdom, see Summa theologiae, II-II, q. 9, aa.1-4; q. 23, prol. ; q. 45, aa. 1-6. It should benoted that, for Aquinas, the actuation of the gifts of the Spirit constitutes the true essenceof Christian mysticism and is an ordinary rather than extraordinary phenomenon in thelives of Christians and. In Alphonsuss day, this classical understanding of Christianmysticism was obscured the Churchs reaction against Quietism and by the generally heldbelief that mysticism required the reception of extraordinary graces and was not to bedesired or expected. See J. AUMANN, Spiritual Theology, Sheed and Ward, London1980, 122-30, esp. 127.
47 For the medieval roots of such arguments, see J. LEGOFF, The Medieval Imagination,Arthur Goldhammer (trans.) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London 1988,
78-80.
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casuistry rested on the weight that could be attributed to the opinions of
recognized authorities. On the popular, devotional level, citations from
authorities were used as a way of putting people in contact with the living
tradition of the Church. These authorities cited were normally those from
Scripture and the fathers of the Church, which were cited in abundance toassure the faithful of the consistency and theological depth of the message they
are receiving.48
Alphonsus salts his reflection on the science of the saints with very
generous selection of authorities. These come primarily from Scripture, the
Church fathers, the saints, and some well-known secular sources. In the order
of their appearance, his citing of Scripture includes: 1Cor 3,19; 1Cor 8,1; Sant
4,6; Dt 32,29; Sl 75,6; Sb 10,10; Mt 11,25; and 1Cor 2,2. 49 These references
come either by way of direct citation or allusion and are selected for the way
they contrast heavenly wisdom with the wisdom of the world. As far as the
Church fathers are concerned, he refers twice to both St. John Chrysostom andto St. Augustine.50 Those from the former refer respectively to the rational
nature of man and to meditation on death as a way of learning the vanity of the
world; those from the latter have to do respectively with the importance of loving
God above all else and how the unlearned are the ones who arise and storm
heaven. As far as other saints are concerned, Alphonsus uses St. Francis, St.
Paschal, and St. John of God as examples of those who, though poor in worldly
knowledge, were particularly skilled in the wisdom of God. 51 In contrast to these
saintly figures, Alphonsus mentions how death brings the glories of the world to
an end and how the likes of Cicero, Demosthenes, and Ulpian now have
nothing to show for themselves.52 In his use of authority, Alphonsus usesScripture, the fathers, the saints, and secular figures to demonstrate the
48 For the definition of an authority and a presentation of the argument of authority see B.MONDIN, Autorit, in: B. MONDIN (ed), Dizionario enciclopedico del pensiero di SanTommaso dAquino Edizioni Studio Domenicano, Bologna 1991, 73-74. For generalbackground, see LEONARD KRIEGER, Authority, in: Philip P. Weiner (ed.), Dictionary ofthe History of Ideas, vol.. 1, Charles Scribners Sons, New York 1973, 141-62, esp. 147.
49 ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 257-58; Pious Reflections 187-90.50 ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257-58; Pious Reflections 187-89.51 ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 258; Pious Reflections 189.52
ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257; Pious Reflections 189.
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contrast between heavenly and worldly wisdom. His aim in using them is to
help his readers to make the knowledge of Gods love a priority in their own
lives.
2. Rationes. In addition to the citation of authorities, Alphonsus makes
use of rational arguments to explain his understanding of the science of thesaints. He does so even though part of his agenda is to expose the
weaknesses of worldly knowledge. From the time of the Christian apologists,
reason was valued as a useful tool for expounding the truths of the Christian
faith. Probably the best evidence of Christianitys deep respect for the insights
of reason are the many theological syntheses based on a wide range of
philosophical systems, Augustines Neoplatonic synthesis and Aquinass
Aristotelian synthesis to name but a few. Although the understanding of what
constitutes a rational argument has developed over the course of history,
Christian thinkers have made good use of its changing contours to deepen their
understanding of the faith. Alphonsus is no exception.53
Using Scripture or the authorities of Church tradition as his point of
departure, Alphonsus generally moves in syllogistic fashion to reach a logical
conclusion. An example of his use of rational argument appears early on in his
reflection:
But this worldly science is folly and madness in the sight of God. The
wisdom of the world is foolishness with God. It is folly, for it makes fools of
those who cultivate it; it makes them fools, and like the brutes, for it teaches
them to gratify their carnal appetites like the beasts. St. John Chrysostomwrote, We call him a man who preserves complete the image of a man; and
what is the image of a man?---to be rational. Hence it is that if a brute were
ever to act according to reason, we should say that such a brute acted like a
man; so we say that a man who acts upon sensual appetites and contrary to
reason acts like a brute.54
53 For a historical presentation of the use of reason in Christian theology, see J. A.BONSORAthens and Jerusalem: The Role of Philosophy in Theology, Paulist Press, NewYork and Mahwah, N.J. 1993, 1-97.
54 Ma questa scienza di mondo stoltezza e vera pazzia presso Dio: Sapientia enim huius
mundi stultia est apud Deum. Pazzia, perch tale scienza rende pazzi tutti coloro che la
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Alphonsus begins his argument with a close identification between fools
and beasts. Worldly knowledge, he states, teaches a person to satisfy ones
sensual appetites. In doing so, it makes that person behave like the beasts.
Once he establishes this underlying presupposition, the rest of his argumentmoves quite smoothly. To be created in the image of God means to act in
accordance with reason. If an animal were ever to act in such a way, it would
be described as acting like a man. So if a mans actions are contrary to reason,
it stands to reason that he is acting like a brute. Alphonsuss mode of reasoning
here is quite logical. He uses reason to support his claim that worldly
knowledge is foolishness in the eyes of God.55
3. Exempla. What sets Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints
apart from most of the other meditations in the book is the exemplum from the
life of Peter Metastasio that he adds after the closing prayer. As pointed out
earlier, the use ofexempla was a common feature of medieval preaching and
was a widely used tool for popular preaching in Alphonsuss day. Alphonsus
also uses exempla in many of his devotional works so its presence in this
collection of meditations should catch no one by surprise. The purpose of an
exemplum is to provide an historical narrative of recent vintage that helps
people to identify with the message being conveyed in the larger discourse.
Although the exemplum, in this particular instance, comes at the end of the
meditation and even after the prayer, it plays an important role in Alphonsuss
coltivano: li rende pazzi e simili alle bestie, mentre loro insegna a secondare gli appetitisensuali come fanno le bestie. Scrive s. Giovanni Crisostomo: Hominem illum dicimus,qui imaginem hominis salvam retinet; quae autem imago hominis? rationalem esse. Perritener limagine duomo bisogna essere ragionevole, cio operare secondo la ragione.Dal che ricavasi che, siccome se vi fosse una bestia che sempre operasse secondo laragione si direbbe che quella bestia opera da uomo; cos allincontro un uomo che operasecondo lappetito desensi e contro la ragione dee dirsi che opera da bestia. SeeALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257; Pious Reflections 187-88.
55 For a good example of Alphonsuss use of reason in his ascetical writing, see hisrefutation of Jansenism in his Del gran mezzo della preghiera, in: G. CACCIATORE (ed.)S. Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche,vol. 2, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma1962, 117-44; The Great Means of Salvation, in E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works ofSaint Alphonsus de Liguori, vol. 3, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St.
Louis, 1886, 161-200.
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presentation of the meaning of the science of the saints and should be
considered an integral part of the entire reflection.56
Since the exemplum is generally a brief historical narrative, it is important to
take it in its entirety. The entire story as written by Alphonsus appears below:
Permit me here to express the great consolation which I derived a few days
since from information connected with the subject of the preceding
considerations---the science of the saints. I have been assured that, after
having received so much applause from all Europe for his poetic compositions,
which are as noxious as they are beautiful (I mean those only which treat of
profane love), for the more tender his expressions, the more they are calculated
to kindle in the breasts of young persons the pernicious flames of impure
affections, the celebrated Signore Peter Metastasio has published a little book
in prose, in which he expresses his detestation of his writings on profane love,
and declares that, were it in his power, he would retract them and make them
disappear from the world, even at the cost of his blood. And I am informed that
his poetic compositions are now confined to some pieces on moral or spiritual
subjects, which he writes in order to comply with his obligation as poet to the
imperial court. He lives retired in his own house, leading a life of prayer. This
information has given me unspeakable consolation; because his public
declaration and his most laudable example will help to undeceive many young
persons who seek to acquire a great name by similar compositions on profane
love. It is certain that, by his retraction, Signore Metastasio has deserved more
encomiums than he would by the publication of a thousand poetic works; forthese he might be praised by men, but now he is praised by God. Hence, as I
formerly detested his vanity in prizing himself for such compositions (I do not
speak of his sacred pieces, which are excellent and deserving of all praise), so
now I shall never cease to praise him; and were I permitted, I would kiss his
feet, seeing that he has voluntarily become the censor of his own works, and
56 For the literature of exempla, see O. Gregorio et al. (eds) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori Opereascetiche, Introduzione generale, 239-83. One Alphonsuss best use of exempla is in Leglorie di Maria. See O. GREGORIO (ed.) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche, vol.10, SantAlfonso, Roma 1936; E. GRIMM (ed.) The Glories of Mary, in The CompleteWorks of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori, vol.s. 7-8, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati,
and St. Louis, 1887.
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that he now desires to see them banished from the whole world, at the expense,
as he says, even of his own blood.57
It is interesting to note that the only other place in the Pious Reflections
where Alphonsus uses an exemplum in a similar way comes in the seventeenthreflection entitled, On Confidence in Jesus Christ. 58 Although the topic of this
exemplum is more diffuse, the conversion of Peter Metastasio (and Alphonsuss
delight in it) is highlighted at a central point. When reading the reflections, it is
clear that Alphonsus added these exempla to provide his readers with concrete
evidence of the movement of Gods grace in their midst. In the present context,
Alphonsus helps his readers see that the science of the saints begins in the
here-and-now and is not simply something to look forward to in the afterlife.
To the readers of this reflection, Metastasio represents someone who has
reached the heights of worldly knowledge, a feat that has brought him a
considerable amount of wealth and public acclaim. The complete turnaround
on his part, displayed even by a willingness to spill his own blood to have his
profane poetry destroyed, presents the readers with a concrete example of what
57 Mi si permetta qui di manifestare una grande consolazione che pochi giorni sono mi recuna certa notizia la quale cade a proposito della materia di sopra considerata dellascienza desanti. Mi fa assicurato per cosa certa, che il celebre abate signor PietroMetastasio dopo tante lodi ricevute da tutta Europa per le sue composizioni poetiche datealle stampe, che quanto pi belle, tanto sono state pi nocive (intendo di quelle cose chetrattano damor profano); poich le sue espressioni quanto sono state pi tenere e vive,tanto pi han potuto accendere necuori depoveri giovani fiamme perniciose daffettiimpuri; al presente ha dato fuori un libretto in prosa, ove detesta queste sue fatiche e siprotesta che se potesse ritirarle tutte e fare che pi non comparissero al mondo lo farebbead ogni suo costo, anche del suo sangue. Ed in effetto mi dicono che ora non componepi in versi se non alcuni drammi spirituali o morali costretto dallincombenza che tiene dipoeta della corte cesarea, e che sta sempre ritirato in casa a far vita divota e di orazione.Io no ho intesa una consolazione indicibile, perch questa sua pubblica dichiarazione equesto suo lodevolissimo esempio giover a far ravvedere molti giovanni ingannati checercano acquistar nome ed onore con simili componenti amorosi. E certo che il signorMetastasio con tal sua dichiarazione merita pi encomio che se avesse dato alla luce millefamosi libri di poesia; mentre con quelli sarebbe lodato dagli uomini ed ora lodato daDio. Quindi ove prima io detestava la di lui vanit in pregarsi di tali suoi componimenti(non parlo dei drammi sacri che sono eccellenti e degni dogni lode), ora non mi sazio dilodarlo, e se mi fosse permesso gli bacerei i piedi, vedendolo fatto da se stesso censore diquelle sue opere, con desiderio di vederle abolite per tutto il mondo a costo (come dice)anche del suo sangue. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 258; PiousReflections 190-91.
58
See above n. 6.
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Alphonsus has been talking about. Peter Metastasio is no saint like St. Francis
of Assisi, St. Paschal, or St. John of God, but someone who has reached the
heights of worldly knowledge and felt the full weight of its empty promises.
Alphonsus includes this exemplum at the end of his reflection because he wants
his readers to reflect on their own standing before the vain promises of worldlyknowledge---and act accordingly.
IV. THE USEOF TIME
Alphonsuss use of these three different types of arguments--- auctoritates,
rationes, and exempla---are important for his presentation of the science of the
saints, because each of them steeps the reader in a particular outlook toward
the meaning and nature of time.59 To understand the deeper connotations of
Alphonsuss reflection, the reader must take all of these perspectives into
account.1. Auctoritates. Alphonsuss arguments from authority are taken either from
the Bible or from the Church fathers. Both sources highlight the role of memory
and retrospection in the readers understanding of time, albeit in different ways.
The numerous citations from Scripture come from both the Old and New
Testaments and convey a sense of the many ways in which God has spoken to
his people through the centuries. This sense of temporal multiplicity comes
through more clearly when one takes into account the many literary genres that
comprise Gods written word.60 Alphonsuss citations represent Gods Word as
spoken through a variety of mediums: proverbs, hymns, letters, and the
sayings of Jesus. Although composed so long ago, all of these words retaintheir significance for the reader today. They are affirmed by the commentaries
of the fathers of the Church such as Augustine and Chrysostom, whose insights
show that Gods Word needs to be listened to and interpreted anew in each
succeeding age. When taken together, the authorities from Scripture and the
fathers of the Church offer an eschatological understanding of time that collects
59 The connection between the three types of argumentation and the portrayal of time comesfrom LEGOFF, The Medieval Imagination, 78-80. The application to Alphonsussreflection on the science of the saints is my own.
60
The phrase temporal multiplicity comes from LEGOFF, The Medieval Imagination, 79.
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the past into the present as it looks forward toward its future fulfillment. When
applied to the science of the saints, this already-but-not-yet focus orients the
reader toward the future, through the present, and by way of the past. It roots
the reader in the ongoing story of Gods involvement with his people and ignites
confidence to face whatever challenges the future might bring.61
2. Rationes. Alphonsuss rational arguments affirm the eternal nature of
truth and the capacity of the human mind to perceive it. They highlight the
perennial, unchanging foundations of truth in the midst of historical change.
The atemporal character of these assertions expands the readers perception of
time as a limited, imperfect agency. Time does not contain truth, but is
contained by it. Alphonsuss arguments confront the reader through the
medium of the didactic present. Unbounded by time, they enter the readers
awareness through conclusions wrought by syllogism and logical deduction.
The resulting affirmation merges the categories of time and the eternal and
offers the reader the opportunity to embody truth in a moment of reasonedinsight. Although they appear quiet an unobtrusive in a meditation that focuses
largely on the futility of human knowledge, these rationes provide a significant
backdrop against which he conducts his reflection on the science of the saints.
All of the other types of authority introduced by Alphonsus presuppose and, in
some way, utilize an element of reasons capacity for truth. Without it, the
movement of his reflection could not move from one insight to the next or be
able to influence its readers with its powers to persuade.62
3. Exempla. Unlike the other types of authority used by Alphonsus in his
reflection, the exemplum steeps the reader in the diachronic experience of time.
The narrative movement of a recent historical example re-familiarizes the
reader with his or her own, normal day-to-day experience. The purpose of the
exemplum is to draw a bond with the reader so that the insights put forth in
61 For Alphonsuss devotional use of authorities, see O. GREGORIO et al. (eds) S. AlfonsoM. De Liguori Opere ascetiche, Introduzione generale (Rome: Edizioni di storia eletteratura, 1960),329-31.
62 Alphonsuss affirmation of the eternal nature of truth comes through even in his firstpublished work, the Massime eterne. See O. GREGORIO (ed.) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori,Opere ascetiche, vol. 9, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma, 1965, 379-95; Maxims ofEternity, in: E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori, vol. 1,
Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1886, 387-403.
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other areas of the reflection have more immediate, personal value. The
exemplum puts flesh and bones on the abstract truths developed by the
auctoritates and rationes earlier on in the reflection. It also invites the reader to
consider the possibility of incorporating them into his or her own life. Exempla
often depict an instance of conversion in the life of a historical personage ofrecent memory. In the case of Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the
saints, it focuses on Peter Metastasio, the poet of the imperial court, and his
disavowal of his profane poetry. Alphonsus includes this example in his
reflection for a number of reasons: Metastasios fame, the dramatic quality of
his disavowal, the life of seclusion and prayer that he has embraced, and his
willingness to spill his blood over his newfound convictions. All of these
qualities provide Alphonsus with a unique opportunity. Metastasio is figure, well
known to Alphonsuss readers, who reaches the pinnacle of worldly science
and rejects it in favor of the heavenly. By including it in his reflection, he invites
his readers to follow a similar path of repentance and conversion of life.63
In his presentation of the science of the saints, Alphonsus employs
different kinds of arguments to underscore the limitless, multivalent orientation
of the quest for holiness. Through these arguments, past, present, and future
confront the reader with the opportunity to reflect on his or her own life and to
respond to the call to fundamental conversion. Only in such a way will one ever
come to know the love of God in an intimate, life affirming way.
The Prayer
Given the above exposition of Alphonsuss use of time, it should come as nosurprise that the prayer to Jesus at the end of the reflection proper contains
specific references to the past, present and future. It reads thus:
O Thou who art my true and perfect lover, where shall I find one who has
loved me as Thou hast! During my life that is past, I have lost my time in
attaining the knowledge of many things which have profited my soul nothing,
and I have thought nothing of knowing how to love Thee. I see that my life has
63 For Alphonsuss general use ofexempla, see O. GREGORIO et al. (eds) S. Alfonso M.
De Liguori, Opere ascetiche, Introduzione generale, 285-90. See also above n. 24.
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been lost. I perceive that Thou callest me to Thy holy lover; behold, I leave all;
from this day forth, my one thought shall be to please Thee, my highest good. I
give myself wholly to Thee; accept me; give me help to be faithful to Thee; I
desire to be no longer my own, but all, all Thine. O mother of God! Do thou
also help me with thy prayers.64
In this heartfelt prayer to Jesus, Alphonsus begins with the future tense and
then moves respectively to the past and the present. The future affirmation
confirms the Jesus roles as the true and perfect lover, the likes of whom will
be found nowhere else. This strong affirmation of Jesus love moves Alphonsus
to look at his past and to recognize the time he has needlessly wasted with
occupations and then to humbly admit this to his Lord. In doing so, he initiates
a process of repentance that ultimately leads to a desire for change. The
prayer then moves from these past tense affirmations continues with a variety
in the present tense that reflect a deep desire to undergo a process of
conversion right then and there: I see that my life has been lostI perceive
that Thou callestI leave allI give myself wholly to Thee.
This desire to want to undergo the entire process of conversion in a single
moment of intense purification is later offset by the recognition of the need for
Gods help to remain faithful. The implication here is that process of conversion
involves more than a momentary change of heart. The real test will come in the
days ahead when ones resolve will be tested through the trials and temptations
of everyday life. For this reason, the petition for help parallels the future
orientation of the prayers beginning. Alphonsus wishes to be a true andperfect lover like Jesus, his Lord and Redeemer. The prayer for help directed
to Mary confirms this desire and expands the prayer from a person conversation
with the Lord to one that makes room for (and wholeheartedly welcomes) the
intercession of the saints.
64 O mio vero e perfetto amatore, dove trover io chi mabbia amato quanto mavete amatovoi? Io per lo passato ho perduto il tempo in sapere pi cose che niente mi han giovatoallanima e poco ho pensato a sapere amarvi. Vedo la mia vita perduta. Sento che michiamate al vostro amore: eccomi, lascio tutto: da ogginnanzi lunico mio pensiero sardi darvi gusto, mio somme bene. Io tutto a voi mi dono, accettatemi voi, datemi aiuto adesservi fedele; io non voglio esser pi mio, ma tutto vostro, tutto, tutto. O Madre di Dio,soccorretemi ancora voi colle vostre preghiere. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI,
Riflessioni divote 258; Pious Reflections 190.
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Alphonsus offers this prayer in this reflection on the science of the saints
primarily for the benefit of his readers. Its power and spontaneity demonstrate
that it could have come from nowhere else than straight from his heart and he
hopes that it will prove to be a useful guide for his readers in their own prayerful
conversations with the Lord. More importantly, it moves the main point of thereflection further by inviting its readers not merely to reflect on the meaning of
the science of the saints for their lives, but also to do something about it.
When seen from this perspective, the prayer is an integral part of the
meditation. It brings together the diverse temporal dimensions laid out in the
rest of the meditation as it seeks to lead its readers into a person experience of
the science of the saints.
Observations
Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints allows for a number of
remarks about his guiding assumptions and his understanding of the spiritual
moral life. Listed below is a limited list of the most prominent concerns.
1.One way of understanding Alphonsus teaching is to interpret it in the
context of his overall understanding of growth in the spiritual moral life. The
journey to God, for Alphonsus, involves an ongoing process of detachment
(distacco) from worldly values so that a growing union (unione) with God might
occur.65 In describing spiritual moral growth in this way, he does not mean to
denigrate the goodness of the created order, but to merely to uproot any
inordinate attachments that have resulted from or might lead to sin.
Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints makes sense only whenviewed against the backdrop of a worldview where the consequences of the fall,
though eventually to be wiped out, still have considerable sway over the hearts
and minds of men. Because of that influence, care must be taken to uproot
whatever inordinate attachments stand in the way of ones intimate knowledge
of the divine.
65 For a brief presentation of the role of detachment (distacco) and union (unione) inAlphonsuss spiritual moral vision, see M. Vidal, Moral y spiritualidad: De la separacina
la convergencia, PS Editorial, Madrid 1997, 90-91.
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2. As a work of spiritual reading, Alphonsuss Pious Reflections offers a
series of meditations with a primary purpose of drawing others closer to God.
To achieve that aim, it author presents his readers with an antagonistic
relationship between knowledge of God and the world and then challenges
them to make a choice between one or the other. This underlying framework ofchoice is a part of a rhetoric of conversion that permeates the entire reflection.
What Alphonsus says about the science of the saints cannot be separated
from this underlying pastoral intention. When seen in this light, the choice that
Alphonsus himself made and which he presents his readers is not to rejection of
human knowledge as such, but to use it for the glory of God rather than for
ones own self-centered ends. To choose and to act otherwise effectively
excludes one from growing in an intimate knowledge of the divine.
3. Alphonsuss tacit affirmation of human knowledge can be seen in his use
of three different types of arguments--- auctoritates, rationes, and exempla---to
further his ends. These ways of supporting ones position were a mainstay ofpopular preaching during Alphonsuss day, but could just as easily be found in a
wide variety of secular works. There is nothing especially sacred about the
use of authority, rational argument, or examples in making ones point. Secular
authors could very easily use similar ways of arguing as a way of finding
support for their own positions. By using these means, Alphonsus is implicitly
affirming the goodness of human knowledge and its use for higher ends. At the
same time, he is absolutely against the use of such knowledge for anything that
would distract or, worse yet, even impede a person from moving into a deeper,
more intimate knowledge of the divine.
4. Alphonsus use of these three types of argumentation demonstrates his
sensitivity to the difficulty of communicating to his readers the true nature of the
science of the saints. His decision to add the exemplum of Peter Metastasio
at the end of the reflection suggests that Alphonsus himself felt the need in this
particular entry to provide his readers with an actual historical example of
someone who has rejected the world and embraced the knowledge and love of
God. Although this argument by way of example is by far the most effective of
the three, it too ultimately falls short of its aim. Extrinsic starting points such as
Scripture, an argument from reason, or a recent historical personage ultimately
prevent any of the arguments from leading the reader into the kind of personal
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experience of the divine upon which the true science of the saints is based.
To possess such intimate knowledge, one must follow the lead of the saints in
prayer and turn ones life over entirely to Christ.
5. Alphonsuss use of time in his treatment of the science of the saints
also reflects a profound sensitivity to the limitations of the historical time tocapture the full implications of Christs redeeming activity. This diachronic
activity has concrete ramifications both in and out of time for the lives of
believers. To understand what these consequences might be, Alphonsus
encourages his readers to look beyond the limitations that time places on their
earthly existence. Alphonsus counsels meditation on death as an especially
helpful way of bringing one face-to-face with the vanity of worldly knowledge.
Contemplating the end of life helps one to live ones life mindful of ones
ultimate end in God. To this end, the sepulchers are great schools of truth:66
they move a person to evaluate his or her priorities; they invite him or her to
remember the divine source from which all good things come.
6. Similarly, Alphonsuss reflection emphasizes the close bond between the
science of the saints and the life of prayer. One can come to know God
personally only through intimate conversation with him. Prayer, for Alphonsus,
is easy to perform and reaps great benefits: He who prays is certainly saved.
He who prays not is certainly damned.67 The fluid, spontaneous way in which
his reflection on the science of the saints turns into a prayer suggests the ease
and frequency with which it should be practiced. Merely thinking about God is
not enough. One comes to know and to love him only by engaging him in
conversation. It is not insignificant that Peter Metastasio, the hero of
Alphonsuss exemplum, is described as leading a life of prayer. 68 As the great
means of salvation, prayer is a sine qua non for leading a person into a
relationship of intimacy with the divine.
66 Oh che belle scuole di verit sono le sepolture per conoscere le vanit del mondo! SeeALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257; Pious Reflections 188.
67 ...chi prega, certamente si salva; chi non prega, certamente si danna. SeeALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Del gran mezzo della preghiera, in: G. CACCIATORE (ed.)Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche, vol. 2, Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura,Roma 1962, 32; The Great Means of Salvation 49.
68 ...che sta sempre ritirato in casa a far vita divota e di orazione. See ALPHONSUS DE
LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 258; Pious Reflections 190.
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7. There are different degrees of intimacy, however, and not all attain to the
level of the mystical. Following the teaching St. Teresa of Avila, Alphonsus
recognizes a great variety of stages in spiritual moral growth. 69 At any one
moment, a person can be in right relationship with God and enjoy a deep level
of intimacy with him, while not experiencing those intense degrees of divinepossession exhibited in the higher stages of spiritual betrothal or spiritual
marriage. Just as it is possible to have, close, intimate friends outside the
context of marriage, so too is it possible to have a deep, intimate relationship
with God without having the extraordinary ecstatic experiences that define the
later stages of the mystical relationship. For this reason, Alphonsuss teaching
on prayer focuses on the lower grades of prayer such as mental and affective
prayer. For him, all people are called to intimacy with God and to participate in
some degree on the science of the saints.70
8. Finally, Alphonsuss aim in his presentation of the science of the saints
is to bring his readers a little further along the way of conversion. Writing in thefirst person plural, he establishes a bond with his readers and is able to lead
them to a consciousness of their need for change. Alphonsus can write in this
way because he is deeply aware of the need for change in his own life. As the
reflection itself becomes act of prayer, he shifts from the first person plural to
the first person singular.71 This subtle change highlights Alphonsuss own
awareness of his need for change and, hopefully, will intensify that awareness
among his readers. Alphonsus knows that his writing can only serve as an
instrument of change by providing a context within which the process of
conversion takes place. As his prayer itself suggests, only the response to the
69 For Alphonsuss teaching, see his Pratica del confessore per ben esercitare il suoministero, nos. 99-122, Tipografia Pontificia ed Arcivescovile Immacolata Concezione,Modena 1948), 160-89; Praxis confessarii ad bene excipiendas confessiones , chap. 9, inOpera moralia Sancti Alphonsi Mariae de Ligorio , vol. 4, Typis Polyglottis Vaticania, Roma1912, 596-608. For an English translation of the latter, see F: M. JONES, ed., Alphonsusde Liguori: SelectedWritings, The Classics of W
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