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HEYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB
^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
;
F DAIA IB HEYSAIRGGH×E
^frthbeia ibsib uef pbrspbgthvf mhst÷rhgf qub tadb be gubetf `f ‐bspbghghifi ib`
Bstfia be Fdèrhgf @fthef—, bstb `hcra sb prapaeb ibsp`bkfr `f ‐gfjf ib mbrrfdhbe-tfs— qub praparghaef b` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs pfrf fcarifr `fs tubrgfs y tar-
eh``as qub supaeb b` bstuiha ib eubstrfs dftrhgbs bstftf`bs.
B` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs -be sus aräkbebs sucihsghp`hef ib `f ghbeghf pa`ä-
thgf-, fuequb tfdchèe ibeadhefia sagha`akäf ib` Bstfia a ‗dæs fdp`ha fúe- ib `f
fggh÷e púc`hgf, sb eutrb ib dugmfs mbrrfdhbetfs tb÷rhgfs y dbtaia`÷khgfs qub chbe
pubibe fp`hgfrsb f` gaetbxta frkbethea y `ftheafdbrhgfea, she rbbihtfr daib`as eh
oarzfr `f apbrfghaef`hzfgh÷e ibsgaetbxtuf`hzfif ib hestrudbetas.
Arhkhef`dbetb, b` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ibrhvf ib` beoaqub p`urf`hstf, bs-
pbghf`dbetb, ib fqub``as trfcfjas qub sb gbetrfrae sacrb b` feæ`hshs ib `as pragbsas
ib ibghsh÷e. Be krfeibs `äebfs, pfrf bstb beoaqub `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf bs b` rbsu`tfia
ib `f gaeoraetfgh÷e betrb `as ihsthetas krupas ib hetbrès hdp`hgfias be `as pragbsas
ib praiuggh÷e saghf`. @a eavbiasa ib bstb feæ`hshs bs qub radpb gae `fs trfihgha-
ebs dfrxhstfs y wbcbrhfefs ib` Bstfia, qub `a betbeiäfe gada uef bethifi k`acf`
susgbpthc`b ib ue feæ`hshs bspbgäga, y `akrf fcarifr `fs dú`thp`bs rfghaef`hifibs be
gadpbtbeghf ibetra ib` dhsda Bstfia.F su vbz, b` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ibrhvf ib` grbghbetb ra` fiaptfia par as
Bstfias be pa`äthgf bgae÷dhgf y saghf` trfs `f sbkueif pastkubrrf. @f duthp`hgfgh÷e
ib eubvas prakrfdfs púc`hgas kbebr÷ b` hetbrès par gaeagbr ib daia rhkurasa b`
oueghaefdhbeta bobgthva ib `fs hetbrvbeghaebs bstftf`bs, f ihobrbeghf ib` fcarifjb
dæs trfihghaef`dbetb juräihga y oardf`hstf ib `as bstuihas ib fidhehstrfgh÷e pú-
c`hgf prbiadhefetbs mfstf bsb dadbeta. B` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs hegarpar÷
eubvfs pbrspbgthvfs y dbtaia`akäfs, heg`uybeia f`kuefs pravbehbetbs ib `f ghbeghf
pa`äthgf, `f bgaeadäf, `f bstfiästhgf y atrfs ihsghp`hefs shdh`frbs. May, b` gfdpa ib
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
=
`fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sb eutrb ib bstas aräkbebs ihvbrsas pfrf grbfr su prapha y ihs-
thethva pbr` ib bstuiha.
Be bstb sbethia bstb trfcfja fpuetf f hetraiughr ue gaejueta ib gftbkaräfs y dfr-
gas fef`äthgas qub rbsu`tfe heihspbesfc`bs pfrf b` bstuiha ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
Bstb acjbthva sb pbrshkub fef`hzfeia `f rb`bvfeghf y gadp`bjhifi praphfs ib `as pra-gbsas qub ftrfvhbsfe `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs f pfrthr ib `f prbsbetfgh÷e, gadpfrfgh÷e
y bvf`ufgh÷e ib f`kueas dfrgas fef`äthgas y gaegbptuf`bs qub pubibe sbr gaeshibrf-
ias rbprbsbetfthvas ib` ibsfrra``a qub mf bxpbrhdbetfia `f ihsghp`hef be `fs ú`thdfs
guftra iègfifs. Sbvhsfr bstas dfpfs gaegbptuf`bs gaesthtuyb ue pfsa hdpartfetb be
`f cúsqubif ib dbjarbs mbrrfdhbetfs pfrf fef`hzfr `fs pa`äthgfs fgtuf`bs a `as pra-
gbsas mhst÷rhgas. ^frf ``bvfr fib`fetb bstf tfrbf ea s÷`a rbgarrbrbdas uef pbquböf
pfrtb ib f fcueifetb `htbrfturf bxhstbetb shea tfdchèe uth`hzfrbdas f`kueas bstuihasib gfsa sacrb pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs hdp`bdbetfifs be Frkbethef be fs ú`thdfs iègfifs.
F `a `frka ib bstb trfcfja fcarifrbdas ihsthetfs ihdbeshaebs ib `fs pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs. F `a `frka ib `as ias prhdbras gfpätu`as eas fcagfrbdas f fef`hzfr `as
prheghpf`bs eaghaebs ib` feæ`hshs pa`äthga: `f rb`fgh÷e betrb bstfia, shstbdf pa`äthga y
b` rèkhdbe pa`äthga, f `as ebs ib betbeibr g÷da sb praiugbe `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs
be ue rèkhdbe ibdagræthga.
^astbrhardbetb eas fpraxhdfrbdas f `fs prheghpf`bs tbaräfs qub heifkfe `fs pa`ä-
thgfs púc`hgfs. Be bstb sbethia, eas fcagfrbdas f ibehr què betbeibdas par pa`äthgf
púc`hgf (Gfpätu`a HHH), g÷da fef`hzfr `as pragbsas a sbgubeghf`hifibs ib `f pa`äthgf
púc`hgf (Gfpätu`a H_), g÷da sb tadfe `fs ibghshaebs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf (Gfpätu`a
_) y guæ`bs sae `as prheghpf`bs fcarifjbs be tarea f` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs
(Gfpätu`a _H).
Be tbrgbr `ukfr, be b` Gfphtu`a _HH fcarifrbdas b` feæ`hshs ib `fs pa`äthgfs pú-
c`hgfs frkbethefs, paehbeia èeofshs be b` feæ`hshs ib `as trfesoardfghaebs apbrfifs
be `as pragbsas pa`äthgas y saghf`bs ib `as ú`thdas ias shk`as be tarea f `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs y be `as jubkas qub as prheghpf`bs fgtarbs pa`äthgas y saghf`bs ibsp`hbkfe f`
dadbeta ib oardu`fr ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs efghaef`bs.
Be b` ú`thda gfpätu`a eas fcagfrbdas f` feæ`hshs ib `as b`bdbetas ib` dhgrafeæ`-
shs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf (^frsaes, 3>>;), beoagæeiaeas be `f apbrfghaef`hzfgh÷e ib
ihsthetas hestrudbetas pfrf b` feæ`hshs ib `f fggh÷e púc`hgf, be bspbghf` `as pragbsas
ib p`fehgfgh÷e y bvf`ufgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
Dugmfs vbgbs b` bstuiha ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs oub vhsta gada ue dueia cf`-
gfehzfia ib tbaräfs ib rfeka dbiha (Wdhtm y @frhdbr, 3>>8). Bs eubstrf hetbegh÷e
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
8
qub `f prbsbetb acrf pbrdhtf f` bstuihfetb hegarparfr mbrrfdhbetfs ib feæ`hshs qub
`bs pbrdhtfe ifr gubetf ib `fs hetbrfgghaebs gadp`bjfs qub gfrfgtbrhzfe `f gaestrug-
gh÷e ib `fs ihobrbetbs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
Sbobrbeghfs
^frsaes, [fyeb. 3>>;. ^a`äthgfs ^úc`hgfs. Ref hetraiuggh÷e f `f tbaräf y f `f
prægthgf ib` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. Cubeas Fhrbs: Dhöa y Iævh`f bih-tarbs.
Wdhtm, Lbvhe y Gmrhstapmbr @frhdbr. 3>>8. Ymb ^uc`hg ^a`hgy Ymbary ^rhdbr .Cau`ibr, Ga.: [bstvhbw prbss.
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GF^ÄYR@A H. Gaegbptas hetraiugtarhas
6. B` Bstfia. 6.6 Ref rbvhsh÷e mhst÷rhgf. 6.3. B` Bstfia gada curagrfghf ygada fspbgta ib `fs rb`fghaebs saghf`bs. 3. B` shstbdf y b` rèkhdbe pa`äthga. 3.6. @fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs be ue rèkhdbe ibdagræthga. 7. Be rbsudbe.
B` tèrdhea ‐pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs— rbquhbrb ibehr y ihsguthr hehghf`dbetb `as shkehgf-
ias ib pa`äthgf y ib `a púc`hga. Ref ib `fs ibehghaebs dæs mfchtuf`bs ib pa`äthgf `f
pravbb Dfx [bcbr (68=;), quhbe `f bethbeib gada `f ihrbggh÷e a f heubeghf sacrb
`f ihrbggh÷e ib uef fsaghfgh÷e pa`äthgf, `f guf` sb gfrfgtbrhzf par b` gaetra` ib `f vha-
`beghf oäshgf gada dbiha bspbgäga ib iadhefgh÷e. Dæs fib`fetb ibsfrra``frbdas
qub, pfrf [bcbr, `f hibf ib fsaghfgh÷e pa`äthgf be b` dueia gaetbdparæeba rbbrb
cæshgfdbetb f` Bstfia.
Bstf gaegbpgh÷e fgatfif ib f pa`äthgf sb ihobrbeghf ib fs prbvf`bghbetbs be atras
pbräaias. ^frf Frhst÷tb`bs, par bjbdp`a, b` madcrb brf ue ‐fehdf` pa`äthga—: su fgth-
vhifi be `f pa`hs ea brf s÷`a ue gadpaebetb dæs ib su vhif, shea b` rfska ibehtarhaib su bxhstbeghf (Wfrtarh, 68=9). Be `f ghvhtfs radfef `f pa`äthgf sbkuäf she sbr uef
fgthvhifi fut÷eadf, y bs rbghèe gae Ehga`æs Dfquhfvb`a, be b` shk`a ]_, qub `f pa`ä-
thgf fpfrbgb gada uef bsobrf praphf, sbpfrfif, par bjbdp`a, ib `f èthgf. Fdcfs pub-
ibe bstfr heg`usa be gaehgta, parqub `f darf` pa`äthgf (fqub``a qub b` `äibr pa`äthga
ibcb mfgbr par b` `ukfr qub agupf) bs ihsthetf f `f darf` praphf ib atrfs fgthvhifibs.
[bcbr (68=;) mf shstbdfthzfia bstf hetuhgh÷e ib Dfquhfvb`a sböf`feia qub be agf-
shaebs b` pa`äthga ibcb aptfr betrb sbkuhr `f èthgf ib sus gaevhgghaebs a rbspbtfr uef
èthgf ib `f rbspaesfch`hifi: ‐Vuhbe cusgf `f sf`vfgh÷e ib su f`df y `f ib `as ibdæs
qub ea `f cusqub par b` gfdhea ib `f pa`äthgf, guyfs tfrbfs, qub sae duy atrfs, s÷`a
pubibe sbr gudp`hifs dbihfetb `f oubrzf—. Acsbrvfdas fquä `f rbobrbeghf f` paibr
gada fspbgta heb`uihc`b ib `f pa`äthgf. Ihrhkhr b` Bstfia bs tbebr b` paibr pfrf tadfr
ibghshaebs ac`hkftarhfs y vhegu`fetbs pfrf `as dhbdcras ib uef saghbifi. Wb gubetf,
pfrf b``a, gae b` rbspf`ia ib f gabrgh÷e< be tèrdheas ib [bcbr, gae b` daeapa`ha ib
`f vha`beghf bkäthdf.
Gfrfdfeh (3>>=) shetbthzf `fs ihdbeshaebs qub gaeoardfe `a pa`äthga: `f tadf ibibghshaebs púc`hgfs y futarhzfifs, `f fiquhshgh÷e y b` dfetbehdhbeta ib` paibr pfrf
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
63
tadfr bsfs ibghshaebs, y b` gaehgta y `f gadpbtbeghf par b` paibr y su uth`hzfgh÷e.
Bstb bsgbefrha bs ebgbsfrhfdbetb gaehgthva parqub `fs ibghshaebs tadfifs par `f
pa`äthgf sub`be hdp`hgfr uef rbihstrhcugh÷e ib rbgursas betrb `as dhbdcras ib `f
saghbifi (Ga`adbr, 3>>8). ^frf bstb futar, `a ihsthethva ib `f pa`äthgf bs `f ibghsh÷e
sacrb `f pravhsh÷e ib chbebs púc`hgas, fqub``as qub ea pubibe sbr pravhstas par b`dbrgfia u atras dbgfehsdas prhvfias. F`kueas ib bstas chbebs (gada `f ibobesf
efghaef`) kbebrfe cbebghas pfrf taias `as hetbkrfetbs ib `f saghbifi, pbra `f df-
yaräf ib b``as (`fs pa`äthgfs bgae÷dhgfs y saghf`bs, `fs acrfs púc`hgfs, `as bsqubdfs
hdpashthvas qub `fs efeghfe, btg.) daihgfe `f ihstrhcugh÷e ib `as rbgursas be `f
saghbifi, a guf` bxp`hgf f gadpbtbeghf par f`gfezfr fs pashghaebs pa`äthgfs ibghsa-
rhfs, a f` dbeas par heuhr sacrb b``fs. Mfra`i @fsswb`` (682=) mf rbsudhia bsta be
pagfs pf`fcrfs: ‐`f pa`äthgf bs quhèe acthbeb què, guæeia y g÷da—.^ar `fs rfzaebs yf dbeghaefifs, `f pa`äthgf be `f èpagf gaetbdparæebf sb `hkf
heb`uihc`bdbetb f` Bstfia. Èsb bs b` tbdf ib `f shkuhbetb fggh÷e.
6. B@ BWYFIA
Gada ibgäfdas, pfrf [bcbr b` Bstfia bs `f fsaghfgh÷e pa`äthgf qub be ue ibtbr-
dhefia tbrrhtarha daeapa`hzf `f vha`beghf `bkäthdf, bxpraphfeia pfrf b``a f atrfs
fsaghfghaebs (hk`bshfs, bstfdbetas, btg.) qub prbvhfdbetb ihsputfrfe bsb paibr. Bstaea hdp`hgf qub b` Bstfia ibcf rbgurrhr gaetheufdbetb f `f vha`beghf pfrf bjbrgbr su
iadhefgh÷e, pbra sä qub èstf bs b` dbiha bspbgäga, ihsthethva, qub sbpfrf f` Bstfia
daibrea ib atrfs fsaghfghaebs.
Dhgmfb` Dfee (6886) ihsthekub ias gadpaebetbs ib` Bstfia qub bstæe prbsbetbs
be `f ibehgh÷e ib [bcbr. ^ar ue `fia, Dfee rbibeb f` daeapa`ha ib `f gafggh÷e
gada b` ‐paibr ibsp÷thga— ib` Bstfia: su gfpfghifi pfrf tadfr ibghshaebs vhegu`fe-
tbs she rbqubrhr b` fgubria ib atra fgtar. ar atra fia, f gaegbetrfgh÷e ib as dbihas
pfrf bjbrgbr bsb paibr bs betbeihia gada ue ‐paibr heorfbstrugturf`—, qub rbbrb f
`as shstbdfs fidhehstrfthvas, juräihgas, curagræthgas, hdpashthvas y gabrghthvas qub
`b pbrdhtbe pbebtrfr f `f saghbifi y mfgbr gudp`hr sus ibghshaebs. Fquä fpfrbgb atra
rfska ihsthethva ib` Bstfia daibrea, gada `a bs `f bxhstbeghf ib ue gubrpa curagræ-
thga qub ea bs iuböa ib bsas dbihas dftbrhf`bs ib` Bstfia, gada be oardfs prbvhfs
ib iadhefgh÷e. B` cur÷grftf ea bs iuböa ib `f aghef púc`hgf iaeib trfcfjf a ib `f
gadputfiarf qub usf. Be atrfs pf`fcrfs, bxhstb ue aribe `bkf` y fidhehstrfthva qub
bs heibpbeihbetb ib `fs pbrsaefs qub agupfe `as pubstas bstftf`bs.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
67
6.6. B` Bstfia: uef rbvhsh÷e mhst÷rhgf
G`fra qub bsta ea shbdprb oub fsä. Be prhdbr `ukfr, par b` mbgma cæshga ib qub `f
gbetrf`hzfgh÷e ib` paibr praphf ib` Bstfia daibrea oub uef rfrbzf be `f mhstarhf ib
`f mudfehifi, gfrfgtbrhzfif kbebrf`dbetb par saghbifibs gae rb`fghaebs ib paibrdbeas hesthtughaef`hzfifs. W÷`a be saghbifibs iaeib `f praiuggh÷e bgae÷dhgf iha
`ukfr f ue bxgbibetb dæs f``æ ib `f sucshstbeghf sb iha pfsa f `f fpfrhgh÷e ib futarh-
ifibs gbetrf`hzfifs, gfpfgbs ib sbr efeghfifs par bsb bxgbibetb y ebgbsfrhfs pfrf
ibghihr prbghsfdbetb su ihstrhcugh÷e (Dfee, 6886). @as grbghbetbs hetbrgfdchas f
pfrthr ib bsas bxgbibetbs tfdchèe ibdfeifrae `f gaesa`hifgh÷e ib futarhifibs gf-
pfgbs ib rbku`fr`as y ib mfgbr gudp`hr `as fgubrias. bra iurfetb shk`as bstfs futarh-
ifibs gabxhsthbrae gae atras paibrbs y bstfdbetas qub tfdchèe ibdfeifcfe `bf`tfi
f sus hetbkrfetbs. W÷`a gae b` surkhdhbeta ib` Bstfia fcsa`uthstf, qub bxpraph÷ fihgmas bstfdbetas (÷ribebs rb`hkhasfs, sböarbs obuif`bs, ghuifibs-bstfia hcrbs, btg.)
sus praphas dbihas ib gabrgh÷e y `as gbetrf`hz÷ cfja ue daefrgf, fpfrbgb `f hibf ib
Bstfia daibrea.
Bstb gfdcha tuva ue arhkbe dh`htfr: s÷`a gaegbetrfeia rbgursas paiäf kfrfe-
thzfrsb `f ibobesf orbetb f atras Bstfias. ^bra Ymadfs Maccbs, be b` shk`a ]_HH,
crhei÷ uef justhgfgh÷e ib` Bstfia fcsa`uta cfsfif be `f sbkurhifi hetbref. Maccbs
ibsgrhcb uef bsgbefrha mhpatèthga, qub ``fdf ‐Bstfia ib efturf`bzf—, pfrf ibsgrhchruef shtufgh÷e she eardfs qub rbku`be `f vhif ib `fs pbrsaefs y she uef futarhifi qub
`fs mfkf gudp`hr. @fs feshfs ib paibr ib gfif uea gaeiughräfe bstf shtufgh÷e f uef
‐kubrrf ib taias gaetrf taias—, qub rbiughräf `f vhif f uef bxhstbeghf crbvb y crutf`.
Fue sh `fs pbrsaefs ea cusgfrfe paibr, b` dhbia fetb `fs fpbtbeghfs ib `as atras `as
``bvfräf f fgtufr prbvbethvfdbetb pfrf ibobeibrsb, kbebrfeia ib` dhsda daia bsb
bsgbefrha ib `ugmf kbebrf`hzfif. Maccbs, betaegbs, pastu`f f` Bstfia gada b` rbsu`-
tfia ib ue gaetrfta qub rbf`hzfe as heihvhiuas, par b` guf` gbibe f èstb su gfpfghifi
ib fggh÷e heibpbeihbetb be tfeta kfrfethgb su vhif y su praphbifi.Bvbetuf`dbetb f tbesh÷e betrb ue paibr pa`äthga fcsa`uta y uef dfyar ihspbrsh÷e
ib as rbgursas bgae÷dhgas (dathvfif, be pfrtb, par b` ibsfrra``a ib` dbrgfia qub b`
Bstfia mfcäf pbrdhthia) iha `ukfr f dfyarbs rbstrhgghaebs f` fgghaefr bstftf`. Wurkb
fsä b` Bstfia `hcbrf`, qub f trfvès ib ihsthetas dbgfehsdas (b` gaesthtughaef`hsda, `f
ihvhsh÷e ib paibrbs) bstfc`bgb `ädhtbs f` paibr fcsa`uta ib `as kacbrefetbs. Bsta brf
gambrbetb gae `fs tbaräfs bgae÷dhgfs ib` efghbetb gfphtf`hsda: sh sb `hdhtf `f fggh÷e
ib` Bstfia y sb pbrdhtb b` `hcrb ibsfrra``a ib `as dbrgfias, pastu`fe bstas futarbs,taif `f saghbifi tbrdhefræ cbebghæeiasb. ^bra `f ihsa`ugh÷e ib fethkufs `bf`tfibs
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
62
fpravbgmfia par uef garrhbetb pa`äthgf b hetb`bgtuf` qub ibsib mfgäf f`kueas föas
vbeäf arkfehzæeiasb y efeghæeiasb pfrf gaetrfrrbstfr `a qub vbäfe gada uef he-
tbrvbegh÷e bstftf` bxgbshvf. Fsä, iurfetb `fs iègfifs shkuhbetbs be ihsthetas pfäsbs
sb fiapt÷ uef pa`äthgf ib rbiuggh÷e ib` tfdföa ib` fpfrfta bstftf`, prhvfthzfgh÷e
ib vfrhfs ib sus oueghaebs, ibsrbku`fgh÷e ib `as dbrgfias y bxhch`hzfgh÷e ib `fs
rb`fghaebs `fcarf`bs. Be `f Frkbethef, pbra tfdchèe be dugmas atras pfäsbs, bstfs
pa`äthgfs oubrae sugbihifs par oubrtbs fudbetas be as ehvb`bs ib ibshkuf`ifi saghf`.
Be `as gadhbezas ib` shk`a ]]H bstf tbeibeghf pfrbgb bstfr be rbvbrsh÷e. Eu-
dbrasas pfäsbs `ftheafdbrhgfeas, qub mfcäfe bxpbrhdbetfia vbrshaebs hetbesfs ib`
hibfrha eba`hcbrf`, vhrfrae mfghf ue ra` dæs fgthva ib` Bstfia, prheghpf`dbetb be df-
tbrhf ib pradagh÷e saghf`. @f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib trfesobrbeghfs gaeihghaefifs ib he-
krbsa, par bjbdp`a, sb hesgrhcb be `f trfihgh÷e ib` Bstfia ib Chbebstfr ib kfrfethzfrehvb`bs däehdas be dftbrhf saghf` pfrf taias `as ghuififeas. Be b` föa 3>>=, uef
eubvf grhshs bgae÷dhgf dueihf`, guyas aräkbebs pubibe ftrhcuhrsb f `f of`tf ib rbku-
`fghaebs bobgthvfs be dftbrhf efeghbrf, gaeiujbrae f `as pfäsbs dæs ibsfrra``fias
f bdprbeibr tfdchèe ue gfdhea f`ka ihstheta f` ib ebs ib` shk`a ]]. Whe bdcfrka,
f ihobrbeghf ib` ‐gaesbesa saghf`ibd÷grftf— qub sastuva f` lbyebshfehsda iurfetb
iègfifs, qub bstb rudca sb gaesa`hib y kbebrf`hgb be b` dueia be as föas par vbehr.
6.3. B` Bstfia gada curagrfghf y gada rb`fghaebs saghf`bsYrfs bstf shetèthgf y shdp`hgfif efrrfgh÷e mhst÷rhgf, paibdas rbtadfr gae dfya-
rbs b`bdbetas `f ihsgush÷e tb÷rhgf y gaegbptuf` sacrb b` Bstfia. Gada ibgäfdas
fetbrhardbetb, b` dbiha par b` guf` b` Bstfia daibrea bjbrgb b` daeapa`ha ib `f
gafggh÷e `bkäthdf, y par b` guf` mf hdp`bdbetfia `fs pa`äthgfs qub oub fiaptfeia be
b` thbdpa, bs ue gubrpa fidhehstrfthva curagræthga. Bstb gubrpa fgtúf, f` dbeas `f
dfyar pfrtb ib` thbdpa, be cfsb f eardfs qub ibebe su rfeka ib fggh÷e bstfc`bgh-
ia. Wu bstrugturf bs jbrærquhgf, gae oueghaefrhas uchgfias be bsgf`foaebs supbrharbs,ihrbgthvas, y atras be pubstas sucarihefias. Be ue p`fea hibf`, bstas cur÷grftfs sae
`as bjbgutarbs ib `fs dbihifs ihspubstfs par `as ibghsarbs pa`äthgas (@bkhs`fiarbs,
^rbshibetbs, Dhehstras, btg.), fuequb `as bstuihas ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e (gada sb vbræ
be b` gfpätu`a H_) mfe ibtbgtfia qub `f sbpfrfgh÷e tfjfetb betrb ibghsh÷e b hdp`b-
dbetfgh÷e ea sb vbrhgf be `f prægthgf, yf qub `f bjbgugh÷e ib uef dbihif rbquhbrb
eudbrasfs ibghshaebs fihghaef`bs qub pubibe fobgtfr`f shkehgfthvfdbetb.
Dfx [bcbr bs eubvfdbetb b` pbesfiar oueifdbetf` ib bstb obe÷dbea, f` qub pbrghcäf gada ue rfska gadpfrthia ib `fs saghbifi daibrefs, guf`bsquhbrf oub-
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
6?
rfe sus arhbetfghaebs hiba`÷khgfs: ‐@f fidhehstrfgh÷e curagræthgf purf, a sbf…
ftbehif f` bxpbihbetb, bs f tbear ib taif `f bxpbrhbeghf `f oardf dæs rfghaef` ib
bjbrgbrsb uef iadhefgh÷e< y `a bs be `as sbethias shkuhbetbs: be prbghsh÷e, gaetheuh-
ifi, ihsghp`hef, rhkar y gaefezf< gf`gu`fch`hifi, par tfeta, pfrf b` sacbrfea y `as
hetbrbsfias< hetbeshifi y bxtbesh÷e be b` sbrvhgha< fp`hgfch`hifi oardf`dbetb ueh-
vbrsf` f taif subrtb ib tfrbfs< y susgbpthch`hifi tègehgf ib pbrobggh÷e pfrf f`gfezfr
b` ÷pthda be sus rbsu`tfias… Yaif eubstrf vhif gathihfef bstæ tbjhif ibetra ib bsb
dfrga. ^ubs sh `f fidhehstrfgh÷e curagræthgf bs be kbebrf` -gfbtbrhs pfrhcus- `f
dæs rfghaef` ibsib b` pueta ib vhstf tègehga-oardf`, may bs, fibdæs, sbegh``fdbetb
hesbpfrfc`b ib `fs ebgbshifibs ib `f fidhehstrfgh÷e ib dfsfs (pbrsaef`bs a dftb-
rhf`bs). Wb thbeb qub b`bkhr betrb f curagrfthzfgh÷e y b` ih`bttfethsda ib `f fidhehs-
trfgh÷e< y b` krfe hestrudbeta ib `f supbrharhifi ib `f fidhehstrfgh÷e curagræthgfbs èstb: b` sfcbr praobshaef` bspbghf`hzfia— ([bcbr, 68?9).
@as prhdbras bstuihas sacrb b` Bstfia sb beoagfrae be b` gadpaebetb curagræth-
ga ib `fs fidhehstrfghaebs púc`hgfs, pbra ibsib uef pbrspbgthvf oardf`, `bkf`, qub
ibsgrhcb fqub``a qub fs eardfs sböf`fe qub fs hesthtughaebs sae. B` g`æshga tbxta ib
[aairaw [h`sae Ymb stuiy ao fidhehstrfthae, par bjbdp`a, ibeb f bstf garrhbetb
ib bstuihas gada ‐`f bjbgugh÷e shstbdæthgf y ibtf``fif ib` ibrbgma púc`hga— ([h`-
sae, 6==;). ^bra atrfs garrhbetbs hetb`bgtuf`bs fiaptfräfe atras beoaqubs. B` p`urf-
`hsda, be fukb f dbihfias ib` shk`a ]], gaegbcäf f` Bstfia shdp`bdbetb gada uef‐gfjf ebkrf—, qub rbghcäf ibdfeifs ibsib `f saghbifi (gfef`hzfifs f trfvès ib pfrth-
ias pa`äthgas, sheihgftas, fsaghfghaebs bdprbsfrhfs, btg.) y kbebrfcf pa`äthgfs f pfrthr
ib `as bquh`hcrhas ib paibr betrb `as krupas qub oardu`fcfe bsfs ibdfeifs. Fsä, b`
shstbdf pa`äthga brf vhsta gada ‐ue tbrrbea be b` qub as krupas ib hetbrès ib gfræg-
tbr bgae÷dhga a `as davhdhbetas saghf`bs eardfthvas gaetbeiäfe a sb f`hfcfe betrb
sä pfrf gaekurfr `f fiapgh÷e ib ibghshaebs sacrb pa äthgf púc hgf. Wb betbeiäf qub
bsfs ibghshaebs brfe rbpfrtas ib cbebghas betrb `as krupas qub `as rbg`fdfcfe— (Wgalpa`, 3>>=: 6;>). E÷tbsb qub fquä b` èeofshs bs be b` ‐shstbdf pa`äthga—, dæs qub
be b` Bstfia< shdh`frbs dbgfehsdas apbrfe be saghbifibs she Bstfias daibreas,
ifia qub taias gubetfe gae f`kuef bstrugturf qub ibsbdpböf b` dhsda ra`.
B` dfrxhsda bs atrf garrhbetb qub mf prbsbetfia f` Bstfia y sus fgghaebs gada
uef gaesbgubeghf ib `a qub agurrb f ehvb` ib `f saghbifi ghvh`. Be sus ihsthetfs vbr-
shaebs, `as futarbs dfrxhstfs gadpfrtbe `f hibf kbebrf` ib qub ‐`as Bstfias bstæe
gaekurfias heträesbgfdbetb par `fs g`fsbs a `fs `ugmfs ib g`fsbs y shrvbe pfrf
dfetbebr y fdp`hfr as daias ib praiuggh÷e— (Wgalpa`, 3>>=: 6;6). Be sus gaegbp-
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6;
ghaebs dæs shdp`bs, b` Bstfia fpfrbgb gada uef ‐supbrbstrugturf— qub shdp`bdbetb
rbbjf `fs rb`fghaebs saghf`bs ib praiuggh÷e prbiadhefetbs. Be b` gfphtf`hsda, b`
Bstfia fgtúf gada ue ‐gadhtè ib fsuetas ib `f curkubsäf—, qub rbbjf y gaesa`hif
`f prhdfgäf ib bstb krupa saghf`. Futarbs ebadfrxhstfs pastbrhardbetb dfthzfrae
bstf vhsh÷e uth`hzfeia gaegbptas gada b` ib ‐futaeadäf rb`fthvf— ib` Bstfia orbetbf `as krupas saghf`bs, pbra su hibf cæshgf (f` hkuf` qub be b` p`urf`hsda) bethbeib b`
fgghaefr bstftf` gada uef rbspubstf f ibdfeifs b hetbrbsbs saghf`bs. B` bstuiha ib
`fs curagrfghfs, par `a tfeta, qubi÷ pfrghf`dbetb ib `fia.
Sbghèe gae b` eba-hesthtughaef`hsda f ftbegh÷e va`vh÷ f gbetrfrsb be ihgmfs gubs-
thaebs, fuequb fmarf ea (gada `a brf be b` vhbja hesthtughaef`hsda) ibsib uef pbrs-
pbgthvf oardf`hstf. Ref ib `fs futarfs qub ‐trfja f` Bstfia ib vub`tf— `a shetbthzfcf
fsä: ‐@as Bstfias, gaegbchias gada arkfehzfghaebs qub rbhvheihgfe b` gaetra` ibtbrrhtarhas y pbrsaefs, pubibe oardu`fr y pbrsbkuhr acjbthvas qub ea sbfe ue shdp`b
rbbja ib `fs ibdfeifs a `as hetbrbsbs ib krupas a g`fsbs saghf`bs ib `f saghbifi.
Bsta bs `a qub sb bethbeib eardfthvfdbetb par futaeadäf ib` Bstfia— (Wgalpa`,
3>>=: 6;9). Whe ebkfr `f heubeghf ib `as krupas saghf`bs arkfehzfias, mfy ue rbga-
eaghdhbeta ib qub b` Bstfia pasbb ue gfrægtbr ihsthethva. Gada sböf`f Dfee (6886),
heg`usa sh b` Bstfia bs ue ÷rkfea uth`hzfia pfrf hetbeshgfr a hesthtughaef`hzfr ghbr -
tfs rb`fghaebs saghf`bs, pfrf ibsbdpböfr bsf tfrbf ibcb gbetrf`hzfr rbgursas, pbeb-
trfr f `f saghbifi ghvh` y bjbgutfr ibghshaebs pa`äthgfs, fiquhrhbeia fsä uef bstrugturfarkfehzfghaef` (ue paibr heorfbstrugturf`) duy ihstheta f` ib guf`quhbr krupa saghf`.
Ihsthetas futarbs ebahesthtughaef`hstfs bxp`hgfe f `fs hesthtughaebs bstftf`bs gada
bstrugturfs qub, dbihfetb ihsthetas hegbethvas, bsthdu`fe f gaapbrfgh÷e betrb as heih-
vhiuas y gaetrhcuybe f` ibsbeva vhdhbeta ib `f saghbifi y `f bgaeadäf. ^ar bjbdp`a,
sböf`fe qub be uef shtufgh÷e ib fusbeghf ib Bstfia ea mfcräf sfegh÷e pfrf quhbe rad-
phbrf `as gaetrftas, pbrjuihgfeia fsä `f fgthvhifi bgae÷dhgf. @f fdbefzf ib sfegh÷e
bstftf` fgtúf gada ue hegbethva pfrf gudp`hr `as fgubrias betrb heihvhiuas y arkfeh-zfghaebs. _f`b eatfr qub f`kueas ib `as trfcfjas eba-hesthtughaef`hstfs mfe gfäia be b`
prac`bdf apubsta f` ib `as pfrfihkdfs dæs sagha`÷khgas. Gada heihgf Gfr as Fguöf
(3>>=: 66), be f`kuefs ib bstfs acrfs: ‐sb ibsvfebghbrae be b` a`vhia tb÷rhga `f hevbs-
thkfgh÷e y besböfezf sacrb f rb`fgh÷e ib` Bstfia gae gfphtf`hstfs y trfcfjfiarbs, sa-
crb `fs oueghaebs bstftf`bs y su rb`fgh÷e gae dfgra-pragbsas bstrugturf`bs, fsä gada
pbrspbgthvfs dæs Bstfia-gèetrhgfs—. Fsä, par bjbdp`a, bxp`hgfr f `fs hesthtughaebs pa-
`äthgfs gada dbgfehsdas qub praiugbe gaapbrfgh÷e betrb fgtarbs saghf`bs pubib mfgbr
a`vhifr b` gfrægtbr ibshkuf` ib bsfs ‐rbk`fs ib` jubka—. Gada sböf`f ue prapha futar
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
6=
ib bstf garrhbetb, pbra gräthga ib vfrhas ib sus ga`bkfs, `fs ihspashghaebs hesthtughaef-
`bs f vbgbs ofvarbgbe f` gaejueta ib `f saghbifi, pbra be eudbrasfs ghrguestfeghfs
cbebghfe f ghbrtas sbgtarbs y pbrjuihgfe f atras, ibpbeihbeia ib quhèe sb hdpaeb
be b` bquh`hcrha ib oubrzfs. Be pf`fcrfs ib Dab (3>>2): ‐@fs hesthtughaebs pubibe sbr
bstrugturfs ib gaapbrfgh÷e… pbra tfdchèe pubibe sbr bstrugturfs ib paibr—.Yf` vbz `f pashgh÷e dæs bquh`hcrfif `f pravbf Kuh``brda A‘Iaeeb`` (6887), pfrf
quhbe b` Bstfia bs ue gubrpa curagræthga y tfdchèe ue gaejueta ib rb`fghaebs sa-
ghf`bs, qub bsb Bstfia bxprbsf y rboubrzf gafgthvfdbetb. ^frf b``a, b` Bstfia fpb`f
f atrf ib sus ihdbeshaebs gaesthtuthvfs: ue shstbdf `bkf`, qub oardf`hzf ihgmfs rb`f-
ghaebs. F f vbz, fue be f dbihif be qub bxprbsfe rb`fghaebs saghf`bs, fs ihobrbetbs
hesthtughaebs qub gaeoardfe b` Bstfia ihbrbe, f vbgbs eatarhfdbetb, be sus ehvb`bs
ib futaeadäf orbetb f `as krupas saghf`bs, sus oueghaebs, sus arhbetfghaebs y `asrbgursas gae qub gubetfe (Asz`fl 3>>=). B` Bstfia bs ue gaek`adbrfia ib ihobrbe-
tbs hesthtughaebs, dæs qub ue fpfrfta daea`äthga y madakèeba. Ib bstf dfebrf, b`
Bstfia ‐sb gaesthtuyb be ue bspfgha be b` qub sb hetbrsbgtfe gaetrfihgtarhfdbetb
ihobrbetbs rfghdas ib rb`fghaebs saghf`bs— (Fcf` Dbihef, 3>>7). @fs guftra oubetbs
ib` paibr hibethgfifs par Dfee (`f hiba`÷khgf, `f bgae÷dhgf, `f pa`äthgf, `f dh`htfr)
gaeoardfe uef dftrhz (y ea ue ‐shstbdf—) par b` guf` ehekuef ib `fs oubetbs pasbb
uef pashgh÷e shbdprb prbpaeibrfetb, y par beib tfdpaga `f fggh÷e bstftf` rbspaeib
shbdprb f uef úehgf `÷khgf oueghaef` (Dfee, 6886).Sbtadfeia taif f ihsgush÷e prbvhf, bs pashc`b frrhcfr f ue gaegbpgh÷e ib` Bstfia
gada `f ibeb Fcf` Dbihef (3>63): ‐paibdas frdfr qub b` Bstfia bs ue fspbgta
ib `fs rb`fghaebs saghf`bs< bspbgägfdbetb, bs `f hestfeghf pa`äthgf ib iadhefgh÷e,
acjbthvfif be ihvbrsfs hesthtughaebs, qub bjbrgb be oardf `bkäthdf b` daeapa`ha ib
`f gabrgh÷e oäshgf bkäthdf be ue tbrrhtarha ibtbrdhefia. Yhbeb par acjbta kfrfethzfr
`f rbpraiuggh÷e ib ue gaejueta ib rb`fghaebs f `fs qub paibdas bek`acfr cfja b`
gaegbpta ib dftrhz pa`äthga-saghf`, heihgfeia gae èstb f `fs gfpfghifibs ihobrbe-ghf`bs qub thbebe `as ihsthetas fgtarbs y krupas saghf`bs pfrf `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib sus
hetbrbsbs. ^ar ú`thda, gaesthtuyb uef futarhifi fut÷eadf, be vhrtui ib su pbgu`hfr
shstbdf arkfehzfghaef : bs uef bstrugturf tbrrhtarhf`dbetb gbetrf`hzfif, par f guf`
`fs rb`fghaebs pa`äthgfs hrrfihfe ibsib b` gbetra y mfghf b` gbetra—.
3. B@ WHWYBDF X B@ SÈKHDBE ^A@ÄYHGA
Bstfs gfrfgtbrästhgfs kbebrf`bs ib `as Bstfias prbsbetfe vfrhfghaebs ib fgubria fquhèe y g÷da kachbref. Bs ibghr, sbkúe guæ` sbf b` rèkhdbe pa`äthga hdpbrfetb be
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
68
gfif Bstfia. ^bra fetbs ib prbsbetfr bstb gaegbpta, paibdas heifkfr be uea dæs
fcfrgfthva, qub `a heg`uyb: b` ib ‐shstbdf pa`äthga—.
Gada dbeghaefdas fetbrhardbetb, `f rbva`ugh÷e gaeiugthstf ib dbihfias ib`
shk`a ]] hegarpar÷ `f eagh÷e ib shstbdf pa`äthga f` `bekufjb fgfièdhga. Rea ib `as
prheghpf`bs tb÷rhgas ib bstf garrhbetb, Ifvhi Bfstae (68?8), ibtf``÷ trbs gadpaebetbsib taia shstbdf pa`äthga:
h) Ref gaduehifi pa`äthgf, gaeoardfif par `fs pbrsaefs, krupas y arkfehzf-
ghaebs (gada `as pfrthias) qub heuybe sacrb b` shstbdf, y `fs hiba`akäfs y
vf`arbs qub ibbeibe.
hh) Re rèkhdbe pa`äthga, ibehia par b` gaejueta ib eardfs qub bstfc`bgbe
g÷da as ihsthetas dhbdcras ib f gaduehifi pfrthghpfe ib` jubka pa`äthga,
g÷da sb rbsub`vbe `as gaehgtas betrb b``as, y `fs bstrugturfs ib futarhifiqub ibebe b` ra` qub pasbbe `f gfpfghifi ib dfeia.
hhh) @fs futarhifibs, qub sae quhbebs agupfe `fs bstrugturfs rbghèe ibsgrhptfs.
Gada vhdas, ib taifs dfebrfs, `f rbobrbeghf f` ‐shstbdf pa`äthga— (praphf ib`
gaeiugthsda, b` p`urf`hsda, b` bstrugturf`-oueghaef`hsda) hdp`hgfcf be ghbrtf db-
ihif uef pèrihif ib` gbetrf`hifi ib` Bstfia. Waghbifibs she Bstfia tbeäfe as gad-
paebetbs ib` shstbdf pa`äthga, fue sh hdp`bdbetfias par atra thpa ib bstrugturfs.
Gae b` ibg`hvb ib bstfs garrhbetbs hetb`bgtuf`bs, bstb gaegbpta ea bs usfia gae
ibdfshfif orbgubeghf. Be gfdcha, `f eagh÷e ib ‐rèkhdbe— ebgbsfrhfdbetb ibcb
sbr dfetbehif, fue rbbdp`fzfeia b` gaegbpta supbrhar ib ‐shstbdf pa`äthga— par b`
ib ‐Bstfia—, gada `a mfgb Kuh``brda A‘Iaeeb``. Bstb futar heg`uyb be b` rèkhdbe
f `as ‐pftraebs, oardf`bs b heoardf`bs, y bxp`äghtas b hdp`äghtas, qub ibtbrdhefe
`as gfef`bs ib fggbsa f `fs prheghpf`bs pashghaebs ib` kachbrea, `fs gfrfgtbrästh-
gfs ib `as fgtarbs qub sae fidhthias y bxg`uhias ib tf` fggbsa, `as rbgursas y `fs
bstrftbkhfs pbrdhthifs pfrf `akrfr`a, y `fs hesthtughaebs f trfvès ib `fs guf`bs bsb
fggbsa agurrb y ibsib `fs guf`bs, uef vbz `akrfia, sae tadfifs `fs ibghshaebs
kucbrefdbetf`bs— (3>>7:7?).
@f prheghpf` ihsthegh÷e qub paibdas ihsthekuhr betrb as rbkädbebs pa`äthgas gae-
tbdparæebas bs `f qub sbpfrf f `as ibdagræthgas ib `as ea ibdagræthgas. F su vbz,
betrb `as rbkädbebs ea ibdagræthgas paibdas ihsthekuhr betrb `as futarhtfrhas y `as
tatf`htfrhas. Bstas ú`thdas, sbkúe @hez (3>>>), prbsbetfe uef dæxhdf gaegbetrfgh÷e
ib` paibr be uef pbrsaef a ue krupa (par bjbdp`a, be `as `äibrbs ib ue pfrthia
úehga), bstæe hibethgfias gae uef ibtbrdhefif hiba`akäf (gada b` efzhsda a b`
bstf`hehsda) y cusgfe uef davh`hzfgh÷e hetbesf ib `f saghbifi. @as rbkädbebs fu-
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tarhtfrhas, be gfdcha, fidhtbe ue `hdhtfia p`urf`hsda, pbrdhthbeia `f bxhstbeghf ib
krupas bxtbreas f` Bstfia (gada hk`bshfs a sheihgftas), kbebrf`dbetb gfrbgbe ib ue
`fza hiba`÷khga oubrtb y ea cusgfe f davh`hzfgh÷e saghf`, qub bs pbrghchif gada uef
fdbefzf pfrf b` rèkhdbe.
Bstas gfsas ea ibdagræthgas, be sus vfrhbifibs futarhtfrhf y tatf`htfrhf, sb ihob-rbeghfe ib `as rbkädbebs ibdagræthgas. Fue gadpfrthbeia rfskas gaduebs, bxhstbe
heehifi ib ibehghaebs ib ‐ibdagrfghf—, qub rbsf`tfe ihsthetas fspbgtas ib f dhsdf.
h) Eaghaebs däehdfs a pragbihdbetf`bs ib ibdagrfghf. ^frf futarbs gada
Jasbpm Wgmudpbtbr a Fifd ^rzbwarslh, b` úehga rbquhshta pfrf gf`hgfr f
ue rèkhdbe gada ibdagræthga bs qub be è` sb gb`bcrbe b`bgghaebs gadpbth-
thvfs, bs ibghr, b`bgghaebs iaeib `f apashgh÷e pubif sbr vhgtarhasf y pubif
pfsfr f agupfr pashghaebs ib kachbrea.hh) Eaghaebs qub hegarparfe ue gaejueta ib hcbrtfibs. Futarbs gada Sacbrt
Ifm` (68?6) gaheghibe be `f ebgbshifi ib b`bgghaebs gadpbththvfs pfrf gf-
`hgfr f ue rèkhdbe gada ibdagræthga, pbra fkrbkfe atrfs gfrfgtbrästhgfs,
heg`uybeia `f `hcbrtfi ib bxprbsh÷e, `f bxhstbeghf ib oubetbs vfrhfifs ib
heoardfgh÷e, y b` ibrbgma f oardfr arkfehzfghaebs pa`äthgfs, betrb atrfs. Be
tf`bs gfsas, ihgb Ifm`, paibdas gaeshibrfr qub ue rèkhdbe bs ‐pa`hærquh-
ga—, be b` sbethia ib bxprbsfr bdpärhgfdbetb `as prheghphas ibdagræthgas.
hhh) Eaghaebs qub hegarparfe `fs gaeihghaebs saghf`bs. F`kueas futarbs gae-shibrfe qub, she ghbrtas ehvb`bs ib hkuf`ifi saghf`, ea bs pashc`b mfc`fr ib
rèkhdbe ibdagræthga. @f ihgu`tfi be bstfs ibehghaebs bs fgarifr guæ`bs
sae `as ehvb`bs däehdas ib bquhifi f sfthsofgbr pfrf paibr gaeshibrfr f ue
pfäs gada ibdagræthga.
hv) Eaghaebs ib ibdagrfghf ‐gae fijbthvas—. F`kueas futarbs sasthbebe qub,
be f`kueas pfäsbs ftheafdbrhgfeas ib rbghbetb ibdagrfthzfgh÷e, fue gufeia
ghbrtfs `hcbrtfibs pastu`fifs par Ifm` ea bstæe prbsbetbs a `a bstæe s÷`a iboardf ièch`, hkuf`dbetb sbräf hegarrbgta bxg`uhr`as ib f gftbkaräf ib rbkädb-
ebs ibdagræthgas. Ea sae ibdagrfghfs p`befs, pbra tfdpaga sae rbkädbebs
futarhtfrhas. Fsä, Ga``hbr y @bvhtsly (688;) iagudbetfe `f pra`hobrfgh÷e ib
gaegbptas gada ‐ibdagrfghfs h`hcbrf`bs—, ‐ibdagrfghfs ebapftrhdaehf`bs—
a ‐prata-ibdagrfghfs—, qub rbbjfe bstb gfrægtbr ftbeufia pbra hkuf`dbetb
ibdagræthga ib bstas rbkädbebs. @f eagh÷e ib ‐ibdagrfghf ib`bkfthvf— ib
A‘Iaeeb`` (6889) bs ihsthetf ib bstas bjbdp`as parqub sä sb trftf ib ue bjbd-
p`a p`bea ib ibdagrfghf, fue gufeia b` gaetra` marhzaetf` betrb paibrbs ibBstfia sbf ièch` y par `a tfeta `f gf`hifi ib `f ibdagrfghf sb vbf fobgtfif.
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A‘Iaeeb`` rbf`hzf uef ihsgush÷e sacrb bstfs f`tbrefthvfs, y gaeg`uyb gae su pra-
phf ibehgh÷e, f` heihgfr qub ue rèkhdbe bs ibdagræthga gufeia ‐b` fggbsa f `fs
prheghpf`bs pashghaebs ib kachbrea sb `akrf dbihfetb b`bgghaebs qub sae f `f vbz
gadpbththvfs b hesthtughaef`hzfifs y be `fs qub bxhstbe, iurfetb y betrb bsfs b`bg-
ghaebs, ihvbrsfs `hcbrtfibs mfchtuf`dbetb ``fdfifs ‐pa`äthgfs—, tf`bs gada `fs ib
fsaghfgh÷e, bxprbsh÷e, davhdhbeta y ib ihspaehch`hifi ib heoardfgh÷e ea daea-
pa`hzfif par b` bstfia a par fkbetbs prhvfias— (A‘Iaeeb`` 3>>7: 7?). B` rèkhdbe
bs, fsä, uef dbihfgh÷e betrb `f saghbifi y b` Bstfia, qub ibtbrdhef b` daia be qub
ibsib fqub``f sb fggbib f `fs f`tfs pashghaebs kucbrefdbetf`bs. Be `fs ibdagrfghfs
gaetbdparæebfs, `as pfrthias pa`äthgas bjbrgbe ue ra` ibghshva be bstf tfrbf.
Bstf ibehgh÷e ib rèkhdbe ea hdp`hgf, ib taifs dfebrfs, ibsgfrtfr tatf`dbetb fs
gaeihghaebs saghf`bs qub mfgbe pashc`b f `f ibdagrfghf. Gada b` dhsda A‘Iaeeb``(3>>3) heihgf, `f tbaräf ibdagræthgf sb sustbetf sacrb b` supubsta ib `f ‐fkbeghf—,
bs ibghr, `f hibf ib qub gfif heihvhiua pasbb `f gfpfghifi pfrf sbr rbspaesfc`b par
sus praphas fgtas, gae `f garrbspaeihbetb bxhstbeghf ib ue gaejueta ib ibrbgmas
y ac`hkfghaebs uehvbrsf`bs rbspf`ifias par b` shstbdf `bkf`. @f pacrbzf bxtrbdf,
b` tbdar, `f vu`ebrfch`hifi, `f ibshkuf`ifi be b` trfta crheifia par b` Bstfia, sae
taifs shtufghaebs qub fobgtfe `f gfpfghifi ib fkbeghf, y par `a tfeta heuybe sacrb
`f rbf` ‐ibdagrfthghifi— ib ue Bstfia ib ibrbgma. ^ar bsa, A‘Iaeeb`` ihsthekub ue
‐rèkhdbe ibdagræthga— ib ue ‐Bstfia ibd÷grfthga—. B` prhdbra sfthsofgb `fs gaeih-ghaebs ib fggbsa f` paibr y ib bjbrghgha ib` dhsda ibsgrhptfs dæs frrhcf< b` sbkueia,
fibdæs ib bsta hegarparf uef fdp`hf kfdf ib ibrbgmas ghvh`bs, saghf`bs y gu`turf`bs
pfrf sus ghuififeas.
3.6. @fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs be ue rèkhdbe ibdagræthga
@fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs be ue rèkhdbe ibdagræthga agurrbe be b` dfrga ibehia par
`f gaegbpgh÷e yf prbsbetfif ib ‐ibdagrfghf—. Be kbebrf`, f ihobrbeghf ib `as rbkä-dbebs futarhtfrhas, `f ibdagrfghf supaeb uef du`thp`hghifi ib ‐fgtarbs ib vbta—
(Ysbcb`hs, 3>>=) be `f tadf ib ibghshaebs sacrb pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. @as fgtarbs ib
vbta sae fqub``as guya fgubria bs rbqubrhia pfrf fpracfr uef ibghsh÷e qub daih -
qub b` stftu qua. Be ihsthetas shstbdfs ib kachbrea, gada sb ihsguthræ be b` gfpätu`a
shkuhbetb, bxhstb ihsthetf gfethifi ib fgtarbs ib vbta hesthtughaef`bs. Be ue pfäs prb-
shibeghf`hstf, gada `f Frkbethef, tfeta b` ^rbshibetb gada b` Gaekrbsa sae fgtarbs
ib vbta pfrf `fs ibghshaebs qub rbquhbrbe `f pradu`kfgh÷e ib `bybs. B` Gaekrbsaibcb fpracfr ihgmf ibghsh÷e (gae `f dfyaräf rbqubrhif sbkúe b` tbdf be gubsth÷e),
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pbra b` ^rbshibetb pubib vbtfr`f. Be sbethia hevbrsa, b` ^rbshibetb pubib bevhfr ue
praybgta ib `by f` Gaekrbsa, pbra èstb pubib ea fpracfr`a. Fdcas sae, betaegbs,
fgtarbs ib vbta. X ifia qub b` Gaekrbsa Efghaef` pasbb ias Gædfrfs gae shdh`frbs
ftrhcughaebs, b` fgubria ib fdcfs bs rbqubrhia pfrf fpracfr uef `by< `fs Gædfrfs ib
Ihputfias y ib Wbefiarbs, gfif uef, sae fgtarbs ib vbta.Be uef ibdagrfghf ib pfrthias pa`äthgas, bxhstbe atras fgtarbs ib vbta ea ib-
ehias be `f Gaesthtugh÷e. @as pfrthias a gaf`hghaebs gae dfyaräf be b` Bjbguthva y
b` @bkhs`fthva pubibe sbr futèethgas jukfiarbs gae vbta ib` shstbdf pa`äthga, bspb-
ghf`dbetb sh fgtúfe ib oardf uehgfif y ihsghp`hefif. Whe su fgubria, ea bs pashc`b
gfdchfr fs pa`äthgfs vhkbetbs. Be ue sbethia dæs fdp`ha ib` tèrdhea, tfdchèe pubib
gaeshibrfrsb qub atrfs arkfehzfghaebs qub pfrthghpfe ib `f bsobrf púc`hgf gaesthtu-
ybe fgtarbs ib vbta. ^ar bjbdp`a, be hestfeghfs qub heg`uybe f sheihgftas y bdprb-sfs (gada b` Gaesbja ib` Wf`frha, qub thbeb betrb sus oueghaebs `f ibtbrdhefgh÷e
ib` sf`frha däehda, vhtf` y d÷vh`), bsfs arkfehzfghaebs tfdchèe sae jukfiarbs guya
fgubria bs rbqubrhia pfrf gfdchfr b` stftu qua. Ohef`dbetb, fuequb su ra` be f tadf
ib ibghsh÷e sbf ihsguthc`b, eudbrasfs ibghshaebs fiaptfifs par b` Bjbguthva y b`
@bkhs`fthva sb tbrdhefe ihrhdhbeia be b` ^aibr Juihghf`, par `a guf` uef gaegbpgh÷e
fdp`hf ib` daib`a ib fgtarbs ib vbta pubib heg`uhr f bstb paibr.
@f gfethifi ib fgtarbs ib vbta bstæ rb`fghaefif gae `f bstfch`hifi ib `fs pa`äth-
gfs púc`hgfs. Gufeia b` fgubria ib dæs jukfiarbs bs rbqubrhia pfrf gfdchfr uef pa`äthgf, dæs ihoägh` bs `akrfr`a. Be gfdcha, gufeia b` eúdbra ib fgtarbs ib vbta bs
rbiughia, bs dæs shdp`b gfdchfr b` stftu qua y par `a tfeta `f hebstfch`hifi be `fs
pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs bs dfyar. Be bstas gfsas, `as kachbreas betrfetbs thbebe dfyar
ofgh`hifi pfrf hetraiughr daihgfghaebs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf< par a tfeta, f sugbsh÷e
ib kachbreas ib ihobrbetb shkea pa`äthga pubib gaeiughr f gaetheuas gfdchas ib pa-
`äthgfs. Be f shtufgh÷e apubstf, ue b`bvfia eúdbra ib fgtarbs ib vbta pubib hdp`hgfr
uef krfe ihgu`tfi be daihgfr `fs pa`äthgfs< be bstas gfsas, sbkúe Ysbcb`hs (3>>=),`f ibdagrfghf pubib vbrsb fobgtfif sh f`kueas fgtarbs ibsbasas ib daihgfr `fs
pa`äthgfs rbgurrbe f dbihas bxtrf-gaesthtughaef`bs pfrf `akrfr bsb acjbthva. Ib bstf
dfebrf, tfeta ue eúdbra duy pbquböa gada ue eúdbra bxgbshva ib fgtarbs gae
paibr ib vbta pubibe tbebr bobgtas ebkfthvas, be ue gfsa par `f hebstfch`hifi be `fs
pa`äthgfs y be b` atra par `f hdpashch`hifi ib gfdchfr`fs.
Be tèrdheas bstrhgtas ib ihsböa hesthtughaef`, `as shstbdfs prbshibeghf`hstfs hd-
p`hgfe dfyar gfethifi ib fgtarbs ib vbta qub `as shstbdfs pfr`fdbetfrhas. Gada sb
fdp`hfræ be b` gfpätu`a HH, `as shstbdfs prbshibeghf`bs ihstrhcuybe b` paibr betrb ue
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`akrfr b` fgubria ib atras fgtarbs ib vbta, quhbebs ea ibsbfe beorbetfr f` Bjbguthva
be `f apheh÷e púc`hgf. F `f vbz, be `f dbihif be qub `as `bkhs`fiarbs sae b`bgtas be
ihstrhtas pravheghf`bs, f ihstrhcugh÷e ib cbebghas púc`hgas f sus ihstrhtas (uef præg-
thgf mfchtuf`, par bjbdp`a, be b` prbshibeghf`hsda bstfiauehibesb) pubib pbrdhthr`b
f` ^rbshibetb actbebr `as vatas sughbetbs be b` Gaekrbsa pfrf fpracfr su fkbeif.
@as pfrthias pa`äthgas y `as shstbdfs ib pfrthias heuybe be `fs pa`äthgfs tfdchèe
par atras dbgfehsdas. Be tfeta arkfehzfghaebs, pfrthias ib gfrfgtbrästhgfs prakrf-
dæthgfs (fqub``as qub rbspaeibe f ue hibfrha rb`fthvfdbetb bstfc`b y qub ea vfräfe
ibdfshfia su uchgfgh÷e be b` bspbgtra pa`äthga) ofgh`htfe `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib fgubrias
hetbr-tbdparf`bs, ifia qub `as gadpradhsas ib sus fgtuf`bs `äibrbs tbeibræe f sbr
rbspbtfias par b` pfrthia be b` outura (Yadfsh bt f`, 3>>?). Wh pfsfdas ib` ehvb`
arkfehzfthva hetbrea ib `as pfrthias f sus pfutfs ib gadpbtbeghf, tfdchèe vbdasheubeghf sacrb `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, parqub èstfs sae oardu`fifs, ebkaghfifs y
fpracfifs par `as pfrthias (a par sus rbprbsbetfetbs be b` Gaekrbsa y b` kachbrea).
@f fifptfch`hifi, gaarihefgh÷e, bquhifi a bghbeghf ib `fs pa`äthgfs ibpbeibe, f`
dbeas be pfrtb, ib g÷da gadphtbe `as pfrthias qub `fs hdpu`sfe. Yfdchèe `f gf-
pfghifi ib gaetra` ib `as ghuififeas vfräf sbkúe g÷da sbfe `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs ib`
shstbdf ib pfrthias. Gufeia `f gadpbtbeghf pfrthifrhf bs va`æth` y brræthgf, y par `a
tfeta `fs shk`fs pfrthifrhfs gfdchfe be gfif b`bggh÷e, rbsu`tf gadp`bja pfrf `as va-
tfetbs paibr hibethgfr f `as rbspaesfc`bs par `fs pa`äthgfs fiaptfifs y prbdhfr`as a
gfsthkfr`as be gaesbgubeghf (Fcf` Dbihef, F`bssfeira y Gmb`h 3>>;).
Ohef`dbetb, b` krfia ib efghaef`hzfgh÷e ib` shstbdf ib pfrthias bs ue ofgtar ib-
tbrdhefetb be `f gf`hifi ib `fs pa`äthgfs (F`bssfeira, 3>63). Be tèrdheas kbebrf-
`bs, b` ehvb` ib efghaef`hzfgh÷e heihgf be què dbihif `f pa`äthgf ib ue pfäs sb mf``f
bstrugturfif par tbdfs y gaehgtas praphas ib ÷rchtfs efghaef`bs a sucefghaef`bs.
Be shstbdfs paga efghaef`hzfias, `as `bkhs`fiarbs kuäfe su gadpartfdhbeta prhegh-
pf`dbetb par gubsthaebs praphfs ib su ihstrhta, y par `a tfeta `f ihrbggh÷e pfrthifrhfefghaef` thbeb dbearbs rbgursas pfrf ihsghp`hefr su vata be b` rbgheta. ^ar `a tfeta,
`as Bjbguthvas tbeiräfe dfyarbs ihgu`tfibs pfrf gaestruhr gaf`hghaebs iurfibrfs y
fpracfr pa`äthgfs be b` Gaekrbsa. Be sbkueia `ukfr, b` krfia ib efghaef`hzfgh÷e ib`
shstbdf pfrthifrha sb vhegu`f tfdchèe gae `as grhtbrhas qub `as pfrthias uth`hzfe, ibs-
ib b` kachbrea efghaef`, pfrf ihstrhcuhr rbgursas betrb `as kachbreas sucefghaef`bs.
Re pfrthia gae fpayas gaegbetrfias be ibtbrdhefifs rbkhaebs pubib prharhzfr bsfs
zaefs be `f fiapgh÷e b hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs, be ibsdbira ib atras grhtbrhas
(gada `f bquhifi a `f bghbeghf).
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@f efghaef`hzfgh÷e ib` shstbdf ib pfrthias tfdchèe pubib heuhr be `fs pa`äth -
gfs púc`hgfs f` bsthdu`fr ihsthetas ehvb`bs ib gbetrf`hzfgh÷e a ibsgbetrf`hzfgh÷e ib`
Bstfia. ^frthias pravheghf`bs paibrasas, par bjbdp`a, pubibe ebkaghfr fpayas gae
`as kachbreas efghaef`bs f gfdcha ib actbebr uef dfyar ibsgbetrf`hzfgh÷e ib gad-
pbtbeghfs y rbgursas mfghf ehvb`bs sucefghaef`bs ib kachbrea. Be gfdcha, gufeia b`shstbdf ib pfrthias bstæ dæs efghaef`hzfia, bs pracfc`b qub `as pfrthias cusqube
rboarzfr `fs gfpfghifibs ib` ehvb` gbetrf` ib kachbrea. (_f`b eatfr, ib taifs oardfs,
qub f`kueas futarbs pastu`fe uef gfusf`hifi be sbethia gaetrfrha: Gmmhccbr y La``-
dfe -3>>9- frdfe qub b` ehvb` ib gbetrf`hzfgh÷e ib` Bstfia bs b` qub ibtbrdhef b`
ehvb` ib efghaef`hzfgh÷e ib` shstbdf pfrthifrha).
Mfstf b` dadbeta, mfc`fdas ib `as ^aibrbs Bjbguthvas gada fgtarbs uehgfias
be `as pragbsas ib tadf ib ibghshaebs. Whe bdcfrka, gada F``hsae (68?8) y uef bx-tbesf `htbrfturf pastbrhar `a ftbsthkufe, f` hetbrhar ib `as kachbreas bxhstbe eudbra-
sas fgtarbs qub tfdchèe gadphtbe par mfgbr prbvf`bgbr su pashgh÷e. @as oueghaefrhas
gadphtbe ea s÷`a par prbobrbeghfs y fdchghaebs pbrsaef`bs, shea tfdchèe par `as
hegbethvas qub su pashgh÷e `bs kbebrf. Bspbghf`dbetb gufeia dú`thp`bs arkfehsdas
praiugbe pa`äthgfs y rbku`fghaebs sacrb uef dhsdf bsobrf (gada agurrb, par bjbd-
p`a, be `f bsobrf bgae÷dhgf, qub sub`b gadprbeibr ea s÷`a f` Dhehstbrha ib Bgaea-
däf shea tfdchèe f atrfs ærbfs ib kachbrea) bs mfchtuf` qub gfif oueghaefrha cusqub
fdp`hfr `fs gadpbtbeghfs ib su prapha arkfehsda. @as kachbreas fiaptfe ihsthetasdbgfehsdas pfrf `f rbsa`ugh÷e ib bstfs ihvbrkbeghfs. Be f`kueas gfsas, `as ^rbsh-
ibetbs prbbrbe sbr b``as dhsdas `as ibghsarbs ef`bs be krfe gfethifi ib ærbfs,
bsthdu`feia uef gadpbtbeghf betrb sus oueghaefrhas sucarihefias (ue ‐bquhpa ib
rhvf`bs—) qub `b kfrfethgb f` ^rbshibetb dú`thp`bs gfef`bs ib heoardfgh÷e ea `trfif.
Be atras gfsas, as rbshibetbs ofvarbgbe qub sus oueghaefrhas `bkube f fgubrias be
hestfeghfs heobrharbs, rbsbrvæeiasb `f hetbrvbegh÷e prbshibeghf` s÷`a pfrf `as gfsas
iaeib b` gaesbesa ib su bquhpa ea oub pashc`b. @a qub fdcas daib`as rb`bvfe, ibtaifs oardfs, bs qub `f hibf ib ue fgtar uehgfia y daea`äthga be `f tadf ib ibgh-
shaebs eh shquhbrf bs p`fushc`b f` hetbrhar ib `as ^aibrbs Bjbguthvas.
Be ibehthvf, be `as rbkädbebs ibdagræthgas `f hibf gbetrf` bs `f bxhstbeghf ib
uef p`urf`hifi ib fgtarbs qub pfrthghpfe ib `f oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. @as
ihsthetas krupas, bvhibetbdbetb, pasbbe ibshkuf`bs gfpfghifibs ib heubeghf. Gada
sb prbkuetfrf Sacbrt Ifm` (68?6) mfgb yf vfrhfs iègfifs: ‐be ue shstbdf pa`äthga be
b` qub gfsh gfif fiu`ta pubib vatfr, pbra be b` qub b` gaeaghdhbeta, `f rhqubzf, `f
pashgh÷e saghf`, b` fggbsa f `f fidhehstrfgh÷e y atras rbgursas bstæe ibshkuf`dbetb
ihstrhcuhias, ±quhèe kachbref rbf`dbetb1—. Sbspaeibr bstf oueifdbetf` prbkuetf
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
3?
rbdhtb ebgbsfrhfdbetb f f ihsgush÷e prbvhf sacrb b` Bstfia y fs rb`fghaebs saghf`bs.
Bs heiuifc`b qub b` Bstfia, be sus dú`thp`bs y gaetrfihgtarhfs frhstfs, rbbjf be pfr -
tb `as bquh`hcrhas ib paibr betrb `as krupas saghf`bs< pbra tfdchèe pfrbgb heiuifc`b
may qub quhbebs agupfe `fs pashghaebs kucbrefdbetf`bs thbebe ghbrtf futaeadäf
pfrf ibsfrra``fr pa`äthgfs qub ea rbspaeife ihrbgtfdbetb f bsfs prbshaebs saghf`bs.Fef`hzfeia `f iheædhgf ib `as `acchbs gufeia sb ihsgutbe gfdchas be `fs pa`äth-
gfs púc`hgfs bstfiauehibesbs, Cfudkfrtebr y atras (3>>8) dastrfrae, par bjbdp`a,
qub `as sbgtarbs dæs paibrasas ib `f bgaeadäf ea `akrfe hdpaebr sus prbobrbeghfs
ib pa`äthgfs ib daia shkehgfthvfdbetb dæs orbgubetb qub atras krupas. Bsta agu-
rrb, be pfrtb, parqub `f shtufgh÷e fgtuf` yf rbbjf bquh`hcrhas ib paibr qub ofvarbgbe
f `as dæs paibrasas, par `a guf` ea ebgbsfrhfdbetb bsas sbgtarbs va`vbräfe f `akrfr
`as gfdchas qub ibsbfe. ^bra agurrb, tfdchèe, parqub bstas krupas ea sae mada-kèebas f su hetbrhar, gae `a guf` bs ofgthc`b qub fpfrbzgfe beorbetfias fetb pashc`bs
gfdchas ib pa`äthgfs. @a qub bxhstbe sae gaf`hghaebs gfdchfetbs ib krupas ib hetbrès
be pukef sbkúe b` tbdf be ihsgush÷e, y par bsa s÷`a rfrf vbz ‐`as paibrasas— fgtúfe
uehgfifdbetb hdpu`sfeia sus hetbrbsbs. Bstfs shtufghaebs ib bdpftb betrb krupas
kbebrfe qub b` fgtar dæs ibghshva pfrf `as gfdchas ib pa`äthgfs sbfe `as ^rbshibe-
tbs. Bstb mf``fzka bdpärhga bs uef cubef eathghf pfrf `f tbaräf ibdagræthgf: hdp`hgf
qub b` vata (`f b`bggh÷e ib quhèe bjbrgb `f ^rbshibeghf) bs ue ofgtar dæs heuybetb
qub `f gaegbetrfgh÷e ib rbgursas bgae÷dhgas pfrf heuhr be `f tadf ib ibghshaebs.
Ib taifs dfebrfs, bsta vfräf be ihsthetas pfäsbs, gaetbxtas, dadbetas mhst÷rhgas y
tbdfs be ihsgush÷e.
@f gadpbtbeghf betrb fgtarbs pa`äthgas ea sb if sa`fdbetb sacrb `as tbdfs yf
prbsbetbs be `f fkbeif púc`hgf, shea prbghsfdbetb be b` hetbeta par ibehr `as gaetb-
ehias ib bsf fkbeif. [h``hfd Shlbr (68=3) mf fguöfia b` tèrdhea ‐mbrbstbshs— pfrf
rbobrhrsb f bstb hetbeta par heuhr be `fs ghrguestfeghfs ib `f b`bggh÷e pa`äthgf. @as
agupfetbs ib ghbrtfs pashghaebs (gada `as prbshibetbs ib `fs gadhshaebs `bkhs`fthvfsbe b` Gaekrbsa Efghaef`) thbebe ue g`fra paibr ib jfgh÷e ib fkbeif, f` ibehr guæ-
`bs sae `as tbdfs qub sb sadbtbræe f vatfgh÷e y be què aribe. ^bra dæs be kbebrf`,
taias `as fgtarbs trftfe ib heuhr be `f fkbeif púc`hgf pfrf prharhzfr fqub``as tbdfs
be `as qub pairæe rbsu`tfr vbegbiarbs. ^ar bjbdp`a, quhbe bstæ be dhearäf be ghbrtf
shtufgh÷e pubib hetraiughr ue eubva fsueta be ihsgush÷e, pfrf trftfr ib ihvhihr f `f
dfyaräf bxhstbetb. Shlbr gaeshibrf qub bstf bstrftbkhf gaeshstb be f`tbrfr b` eúdbra
ib ‐ihdbeshaebs ib bvf`ufgh÷e—: f` sudfr eubvas gadpaebetbs f` tbdf be gubsth÷e,
`f gaf`hgh÷e dfyarhtfrhf pubib fmarf vbrsb ihvhihif par b` eubva fsueta be ihsgush÷e.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
3=
Fcf` Dbihef, Jufe Dfeub`, Dfrt äe F`bssfeira y Kfcrhb`f Gmb`h , ‐Gaetra`feia f`as rbprbsbetfetbs: uef rbvhsh÷e tb÷rhgf y gaegbptuf` ib `f fggauetfch`hty vbr-thgf`—, be Jufe Dfeub` Fcf` Dbihef (Bi.) Bvf`ufeia b` ibsbdpböa ibdagræ-thga ib `fs hesthtughaebs pa`äthgfs frkbethefs, Cubeas Fhrbs, ^radbtba, 3>>;.
Fguöf, Gfr`as, ‐Hetraiuggh÷e—, be Gfr`as Fguöf (Gadp.) @bgturfs sacrb b` Bs-
tfia y `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: rbtadfeia b` ibcftb ib fybr pfrf oartf`bgbr b`fgtuf`, Cubeas Fhrbs, Jbofturf ib Kfchebtb ib Dhehstras, 3>>=.
F`bssfeira, Dfrt äe, ‐±Ibsgbetrf`hzfgh÷e she ibsefghaef`hzfgh÷e1 trfesoardfgha-ebs be `f bstrugturf bstftf` y `f gadpbtbeghf pa`äthgf be `f Frkbethef (68=7-3>>;)—. Ybshs ib Dfbsträf, Rehvbrshifi Yargufta Ih Yb``f, 3>63.
F``hsae, Krfmfd Y., ‐Gaegbptuf` Daib`s fei tmb Gucfe Dhssh`b—. Fdbrhgfe ^a-`hthgf` Wghbegb Sbvhbw, ?8 (7): ?=8-;6=, 68?8.
Cfudkfrtebr, Orfel S. bt f`., @accyhek fei pa`hgy gmfekb. [ma whes, wma `asbsfei wmy. Gmhgfka, Rehvbrshty ao Gmhgfka ^rbss, 3>>8.
Gfrfdfeh, Ifehb`b, Gadpfrfthvb ^a`hthgs. Axoari, Axoari Rehvbrshty ^rbss,3>>=..
Gmmhccbr, ^rfibbp y Lbe La``dfe, Ymb Oardfthae ao Efthaef` ^frty Wystbds:Obibrf`hsd fei ^frty Gadpbththae he Gfefif, Krbft Crhtfhe, Heihf, fei tmbRehtbi Wtftbs, ^rhegbtae, ^r hegbtae Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>9..
Ga``hbr, Ifvhi y Wtbvbe @bvhtsly, ‐Sbsbfrgm Eatb: Ibdagrfgy whtm Fijbgthvbs:Gaegbptuf` Heeavfthae he Gadpfrfthvb Sbsbfrgm—. [ar`i ^a`hthgs, 98 (7): 97>-926, 688;.
Ifm`, Sacbrt, [ma kavbres1, Ebw Mfvbe, Xf`b Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 68?6.
Bfstae, Ifvhi, Bsqubdfs pfrf b` feæ`hshs pa`äthga, Cubeas Fhrbs, Fdarrartu,68?8.
@fsswb``, Mfra`i, ^a`hthgs: [ma kbts [mft, [mbe fei Maw, Ebw Xarl, DbrhihfeCaals, 682=.
@hez, Jufe, Yatf`htfrhfe fei futmarhtfrhfe rbkhdbs, Cau`ibr, @yeeb Shbeebr,3>>>.
Dfee, Dhgmfb`, @fs oubetbs ib` paibr saghf`. _a`udbe HH, Dfirhi, F`hfezf ,6886.
Dab, Ybrry, ‐^awbr fei ^a`hthgf` Hesthtuthaes—. ^brspbgthvbs ae ^a`hthgs, 7: 362-
377, 3>>2.A‘Iaeeb``, Kuh``brda, ‐Fgbrgf ib` bstfia, `f ibdagrfthzfgh÷e y f`kueas prac`b-
dfs gaegbptuf`bs. Ref pbrspbgthvf `ftheafdbrhgfef gae rbobrbeghf f pfäsbs pasgaduehstfs—. Ibsfr ra` `a Bgae÷dhga, 77 (67>): 6?7-6=9, 6887.
A‘Iaeeb``, Kuh``brda, ‐Ib`bkfthvb Ibdagrfgy—, Jauref` ao Ibdagrfgy, 2 (6):22-?8, 6889.
Aoob, G`fus, ‐Ibdagrfghf gadpbththvf ib pfrthias y bstfia ib chbebstfr lbyeb-shfea. Sbo`bxhaebs fgbrgf ib sus `hdhtfghaebs mhst÷rhgfs—, be Gfr`as Fguöf(Gadp.) @bgturfs sacrb b` Bstfia y `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: rbtadfeia b` ibcftb
ib fybr pfrf oartf`bgbr b` fgtuf`, Cubeas Fhrbs, Jbofturf ib Kfchebtb ib Dh-ehstras, 3>>=.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
38
Asz`fl, Asgfr, ‐Oardfgh÷e mhst÷rhgf ib` Bstfia be Fdèrhgf @fthef: b`bdbetastb÷rhga-dbtaia`÷khgas pfrf su bstuiha—, be Gfr`as Fguöf (Gadp.) @bgturfssacrb b` Bstfia y `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: rbtadfeia b` ibcftb ib fybr pfrfoartf`bgbr b` fgtuf`, Cubeas Fhrbs, Jbofturf ib Kfchebtb ib Dhehstras, 3>>=.
Shlbr, [h``hfd, ‐^a`hthgf` Ymbary fei tmb Frt ao Mbrbstmbthgs—, Fdbrhgfe ^a`hth-
gf` Wghbegb Fssaghfthae Feeuf` Dbbthek, 3 f` 2 ib Wbpthbdcrb, 68=3.Wgalpa`, Ymbif, ‐B` Bstfia rbkrbsf f` prhdbr p`fea: Bstrftbkhfs ib feæ`hshs be
`f hevbsthkfgh÷e fgtuf`—, be Gfr`as Fguöf (Gadp.) @bgturfs sacrb b` Bstfia y`fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: rbtadfeia b` ibcftb ib fybr pfrf oartf`bgbr b` fgtuf`,Cubeas Fhrbs, Jbofturf ib Kfchebtb ib Dhehstras, 3>>=.
Yadfsh, Dfrhfea bt f`., Ymb pa`hthgs ao pa`hghbs. Bgaeadhg fei saghf` prakrbss he@fthe Fdbrhgf, [fsmhektae IG: Hetbr-Fdbrhgfe Ibvb`apdbet Cfel / IfvhiSaglbob``br Gbetbr oar @fthe Fdbrhgfe Wtuihbs / Mfrvfri Rehvbrshty, 3>>?.
Ysbcb`hs, Kbarkb, ‐@f tadf ib ibghshaebs be `as shstbdfs pa`äthgas. Fgtarbs ib
vbta be b` prbshibeghf`hsda, pfr`fdbetfr hsda, du`thgfdbrf`hsda y du`thpfr-thihsda—, be Gfr`as Fguöf (Gadp.) @bgturfs sacrb b` Bstfia y `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: rbtadfeia b` ibcftb ib fybr pfrf oar tf`bgbr b` fgtuf`, Cubeas Fhrbs,Jbofturf ib Kfchebtb ib Dhehstras, 3>>=.
[bcbr, Dfx, ‐@f pa`äthgf gada vagfgh÷e—, be B` pa`äthga y b` ghbetäohga, Dfirhi,F`hfezf, 68=; \6868T.
[bcbr, Dfx, Bgaeadäf y Waghbifi, Dèxhga, Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf, 68?9.
[h`sae, [aairaw, ‐Ymb stuiy ao fidhehst rfthae—, ^a`hthgf` Wghbegb Vufr tbr`y, HH(3):68;-333, 6==;.
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b` obibrf`hsda, qub supaeb `f ib`bkfgh÷e ib ofgu`tfibs f sucuehifibs kbakrægfs.
Bstf ihdbesh÷e iha arhkbe f `f ihobrbeghfgh÷e betrb kachbreas uehtfrhas y kachbreas
obibrf`bs.
3.6. @f ihstrhcugh÷e marhzaetf` ib` paibr: pfr`fdbetfrhsda yprbshibeghf`hsda
B` prhdbr grhtbrha pfrf ihsthekuhr betrb ihvbrsas rbkädbebs ibdagræthgas sb cfsf be
`f ihvhsh÷e marhzaetf` ib` paibr betrb `as ihsthetas paibrbs qub gaeoardfe b` Bstfia.
Bsta pbrdhtb ihsthekuhr betrb kachbreas prbshibeghf`hstfs, pfr`fdbetfrhas y sbdh-
prbshibeghf`hstfs. Gada vbrbdas, `as shstbdfs prbshibeghf`hstfs thbeibe f uef df-
yar ihspbrsh÷e hesthtughaef` ib` paibr, dhbetrfs qub `as kachbreas pfr`fdbetfrhstfs
pradubvbe uef dfyar gaegbetrfgh÷e ib` paibr< `as shstbdfs sbdhprbshibeghf`hstfsasgh`fe betrb fdcfs gfrfgtbrästhgfs.
@f prheghpf` ihsthegh÷e betrb b` prbshibeghf`hsda y b` pfr`fdbetfrhsda pfsf par f
oardf ib b`bggh÷e ib` aibr Bjbguthva, y par f bxhstbeghf a ea ib ue dfeifta ja ib
iurfgh÷e be b` gfrka. Be `as shstbdfs prbshibeghf`hstfs, b` pubc`a b`hkb ihrbgtfdbetb
b` thtu`fr ib` Bjbguthva (b` prbshibetb) y f `as dhbdcras ib` Gaekrbsa< be ue pfr`f-
dbetfrhsda, be gfdcha, b`hkb f `as dhbdcras ib` @bkhs`fthva y sae bstas quhbebs
sb`bgghaefe f` thtu`fr ib` Bjbguthva (b` prhdbr dhehstra). F su vbz, be b` prbshibeghf-`hsda `f iurfgh÷e ib` dfeifta ib prbshibetbs y `bkhs`fiarbs bstæ ibtbrdhefif par `f
Gaesthtugh÷e< be b` pfr`fdbetfrhsda, be gfdcha, as dfeiftas pubibe fgartfrsb, par
bjbdp`a sh b` fr`fdbeta rbdubvb f` prhdbr dhehstra a sh bstb ihsub`vb f` fr`fdbeta
y gaevagf f eubvfs b`bgghaebs. B` shkuhbetb gufira rbsudb bstas ias ftrhcutas:
Dfeifta ja Whe dfeifta ja
B`bggh÷e ihrbgtf ib` B ^rbshibeghf`hsda -
B`bggh÷e heihrbgtf ib` B - ^fr`fdbetfrhsda
@fs ias gb`ifs ea ibsgrhptfs garrbspaeibe f gfsas mäcrhias, qub gubetfe gae
duy pagas fetbgbibetbs mhst÷rhgas. Agurrb qub fdcas ftrhcutas vfe `÷khgfdbetb
gaebgtfias. Wh, par bjbdp`a, b` thtu`fr ib` Bjbguthva oubrf b`bgta ihrbgtfdbetb par b`
pubc`a pbra puihbrf sbr rbdavhia par b` @bkhs fthva, pairäf agurrhr uef pbrdfebetb
hebstfch`hifi, ibchia f `f b`bggh÷e ib Bjbguthvas qub ea ebgbsfrhfdbetb tuvhbrfe
rbspf`ia `bkhs`fthva.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
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Ifia qub prbshibetbs y Gaekrbsas sae b`bgtas be oardf heibpbeihbetb be b` prb-
shibeghf`hsda, bxhstb `f pashch`hifi ib kachbreas ihvhihias, gae ihsthetas pfrthias
gaetra`feia fdcas pfrthias. Be b` pfr`fdbetfrhsda, be gfdcha, ifia qub b` @b-
khs`fthva sb`bgghaef f` Bjbguthva, mfy prægthgfdbetb uef kfrfetäf ib qub ue dhsda
pfrthia a gaf`hgh÷e gaetra`fræ fdcas paibrbs. ^ar beib, b` prbshibeghf`hsda pradub-vb uef dfyar ihspbrsh÷e hesthtughaef` ib` paibr, dhbetrfs qub b` pfr`fdbetfrhsda
hegbethvf uef oush÷e ib paibrbs.
3.6.6. fr`fdbetfrhsda
B` arhkbe ib` pfr`fdbetfrhsda bstæ fsaghfia gae b` pfsfjb ib `f daefrquäf fcsa`utf
f f daefrquäf gaesthtughaef`, ib f dfea ib f Sbva`ugh÷e k`arhasf hek`bsf ib` shk`a
]_HH. F pfrthr ib betaegbs, `fs ibghshaebs ib` rby qubifrae sujbtfs f `f fpracfgh÷e
ib` ^fr`fdbeta. Bs fsä qub `f daefrquäf fcsa`utf pfs÷ f gaesthtuhrsb be uef daefr-
quäf gaesthtughaef`. Wurkh÷ betaegbs `f kurf ib` prhdbr dhehstra, qub brf b` gaesb -
jbra prheghpf` ib `f garaef y qub fiquhrh÷ `f ouegh÷e ib prbshihr b` Gaesbja Sbf`, y
gadbez÷ f ibsfrra``frsb `f gaegbpgh÷e ib qub `f rbspaesfch`hifi pa`äthgf ib ihgma
Gaesbja a kfchebtb orbetb f `f Fsfdc`bf sbräf dbjar fsbkurfif sh sus dhbdcras
oubrfe shdu`tæebfdbetb dhbdcras ib` ^fr`fdbeta.
B` rbsu`tfia ib bstb pragbsa mhst÷rhga qub fcfrg÷ dæs ib ue shk`a y dbiha oub b` pfsfjb ib `f daefrquäf gaesthtughaef` f `f daefrquäf pfr`fdbetfrhf, be b` qub oub
ibg`hefeia b` paibr rbf` y sb oub oartf`bghbeia shdu`tæebfdbetb b` fr`fdbeta gada
÷rkfea pa`äthga. Be bstb dfrga, b` prhdbr dhehstra y su kfchebtb sb heibpbeihzfrae
ib` rby, fpraphæeiasb krfiuf`dbetb ib sus prbrrakfthvfs kucbrefdbetf`bs b hegrb-
dbetfeia su ibpbeibeghf ib` ÷rkfea `bkhs`fthva, b` guf` hetbkrfe y orbetb f` qub ib-
cbe rbspaeibr. Fsä, b` prhdbr dhehstra sb gaevhrth÷ be b` jbob ib kachbrea, f` thbdpa
qub b` daefrgf dfetuva b` gfrka ib jbob ib Bstfia, uef pashgh÷e dfyardbetb oardf`
y shdc÷`hgf (Zb`fzehl, 3>>7).
Be b` pfr`fdbetfrhsda `f rb`fgh÷e betrb b` ^aibr Bjbguthva y b` ^aibr @bkhs`fthva
sb gfrfgtbrhzf par `f oush÷e ib fdcas, bs ibghr qub `as kachbreas sae ibshkefias,
fpayfias y ibsthtuhias f trfvès ib` vata ib` ^fr`fdbeta (Wfrtarh, 6889). B` jbob ib`
Bjbguthva, ``fdfia prhdbr dhehstra, bs b`bkhia par b` @bkhs`fthva, paibr fetb b` guf`
bs rbspaesfc`b jueta f su kfchebtb, pubs ibpbeib ib su gaefezf y pubib vbr ibs -
thtuhia f trfvès ib ue ‐vata ib gbesurf—. ^ar `a tfeta, b` dfeifta ib ue prhdbrd ea
bstæ ja. F `f vbz, b` prhdbr dhehstra thbeb `f patbstfi ib ihsa`vbr b` ^fr`fdbeta ygaevagfr f b`bgghaebs pfrf `f gaeoardfgh÷e ib uea eubva, fggh÷e qub sub`be ibsf-
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rra``fr `as Bjbguthvas gufeia prbvèe ue hedhebetb vata ib gbesurf pfr`fdbetfrha. Be pfäsbs pfr`fdbetfrhas, `as vatfetbs b`hkbe f `as dhbdcras ib` ^fr`fdbeta, qub `ubkasb`bgghaefe ib betrb sus dhbdcras f` thtu`fr ib` Bjbguthva (prhdbr dhehstra) y f `as atrashetbkrfetbs ib` kfchebtb. Be bstf hdfkbe (tadfif ib Fcf` Dbihef, 3>6>) sb acsbrvfe `asgfeihiftas f` ^fr`fdbeta ib `as ihsthetas pfrthias be ue ihstrhta b`bgtarf`.
Be `as shstbdfs pfr`fdbetfrhas bxhstb uef ihsthegh÷e ib oueghaebs betrb b` jbob ib
kachbrea (b` prhdbr dhehstra), quhbe begfcbzf b` kachbrea, y b` jbob ib Bstfia, qub
bjbrgb ue ra` dfyardbetb shdc÷`hga y gbrbdaehf`. B` jbob ib Bstfia pubib sbr ue
rby, be `as pfäsbs daeærquhgas, a ue prbshibetb, be `as pfäsbs rbpuc`hgfeas. B` jbob ib
Bstfia bs quhbe oardf`dbetb prapaeb `f ibshkefgh÷e ib` prhdbr dhehstra, pbra bs b`
^fr`fdbeta (f trfvès ib uef dfyaräf oardfif par ue pfrthia a gaf`hgh÷e ib pfrthias)
quhbe rbf`dbetb ibeb quhèe agupf bsb gfrka. Ib taifs dfebrfs, be ghbrtfs agfsha -
ebs ib grhshs a gaedagh÷e efghaef` b` jbob ib Bstfia pubib ibsbdpböfr ue ofgtar ib
uehifi, be `f dbihif be qub sb trftf ib uef pbrsaef`hifi qub sb uchgf par beghdfib `f ihsputf pfrthifrhf.
Wh chbe b` prhdbr dhehstra bs quhbe ihrhkb b` kachbrea, be `f oardf g`æshgf ib
pfr`fdbetfrhsda b` ^aibr Bjbguthva bs ib gfrægtbr ga`bgthva, gaeoardfia par `f ta-
tf`hifi ib` kfchebtb a Gaesbja ib Dhehstras. F` rbspbgta, Wfrtarh (6889) ibstfgf qub
b` prhdbr dhehstras pubib rb`fghaefrsb gae `as ibdæs hetbkrfetbs ib` kfchebtb ib ih-
vbrsfs oardfs: gada ue ‐prhdbra par beghdf ib sus ibshkuf`bs—, gada ue ‐prhdbra
betrb ibshkuf`bs— a gada ue ‐prhdbra betrb hkuf`bs—. Re ‐prhdbra par beghdf ib
sus ibshkuf`bs— bs b` jbob ib` Bjbguthva qub rbf`dbetb ihrhkb b` kachbrea y qub f `f
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vbz bs jbob ib` pfrthia kacbrefetbs, par `a qub ihoägh`dbetb pubib sbr ibsthtuhia par
b` vata ib` fr`fdbeta. Fibdæs, ibshkef a rbdubvb sbkúe b p`fgb f as dhehstras ib
su kfchebtb, qub `b sae g`frfdbetb sucarihefias. @as prhdbras dhehstras crhtæehgas
mfchtuf`dbetb mfe begfrefia bstf kurf.
Re ‐prhdbra betrb ibshkuf`bs— bs b` prhdbr dhehstra qub shkub tbehbeia uef pa-shgh÷e ib prbbdhebeghf, pbra qub kachbref fpayfia par uef gaf`hgh÷e ib dú`thp`bs
pfrthias. ^ar `a tfeta, ea bs jbob ib taias `as pfrthias qub hetbkrfe b` kachbrea. @as
prhdbras dhehstras f`bdfebs (ibeadhefias ‐Gfegh``brbs—) rbprbsbetfe bstf kurf.
Ohef`dbetb, ue ‐prhdbra betrb hkuf`bs— bs ue prhdbr dhehstra qub gfb gae sus dhehs-
tras, qub kbebrf`dbetb ibcb heg`uhr be b` kfchebtb f dhehstras qub `b sae hdpubstas
par atras pfrthias ib `f gaf`hgh÷e y qub prbsbetf paga gaetra` sacrb b` krupa. Sbkä-
dbebs pfr`fdbetfrhas f`tfdbetb hebstfc`bs (gada `fs rbpúc`hgfs orfegbsf b htf`hfefib gadhbezas y dbihfias ib` shk`a ]]) sae bjbdp`as ib bstb gftbkaräf.
Be b` bjbdp`a pura ib pfr`fdbetfrhsda, rbprbsbetfia par b` daib`a crhtæehga,
`fs ibghshaebs ib` pfr`fdbeta sae sacbrfefs, y par beib ea bstæe sujbtfs f rbvhsh÷e
juihghf`. Wh chbe bstb rfska mf shia dfthzfia heg`usa be b` gfsa ib Krfe Crbtföf, ib-
dubstrf par què ibghdas qub b` pfr`fdbetfrhsda bs uef oardf ib kachbrea fsaghfif
f `f gaegbetrfgh÷e hesthtughaef` ib` paibr. F su vbz, ibetra ib `as pfr`fdbetfrhsdas
b` ``fdfia daib`a ‐wbstdhestbr— a ‐dfyarhtfrha— (@hjpmfrt, 6886) bs b` qub dæs
gaegbetrf b` paibr be b` kachbrea. Bstb daib`a sb gfrfgtbrhzf par uef sbrhb ib rfs-kas, b` prheghpf` ib `as guf`bs bs `f bxhstbeghf ib ue kachbrea oardfia par ue úehga
pfrthia pa`äthga, qub bs f`tfdbetb ihsghp`hefia y par `a tfeta thbeb kfrfethzfif be
b` ^fr`fdbeta `f fpracfgh÷e ib `fs ibghshaebs ibehifs par `f ihrbggh÷e ib` pfrthia
aghf`hstf. Be bstb daib`a, f su vbz, ea bxhstbe atras dbgfehsdas ib ihspbrsh÷e ib`
paibr: b` kachbrea bs uehtfrha y b` @bkhs`fthva bs uehgfdbrf`, fsbkurfeia f` kachbr-
ea uef fdp`hf `hcbrtfi be `f tadf ib ibghshaebs sacrb pa`äthgf púc`hgf. Ib mbgma, `f
hebstfch`hifi y orbgubetb rbvbrsh÷e ib ghbrtfs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs be `f Krfe Crbtföfib dbihfias ib` shk`a ]] (gada `f efghaef`hzfgh÷e ib bdprbsfs cfja kachbreas ib`
^frthia @fcarhstf y `f sucshkuhbetb prhvfthzfgh÷e cfja kachbreas Gaesbrvfiarbs) mf
shia bxp`hgfif par bstb cfja eúdbras ib ‐fgtarbs ib vbta— (Ysbcb`hs, 3>>3).
B` daib`a apubsta f` ib wbstdhestbr b` ib ‐gaesbesa— (@hjpmfrt, 6886). Bstb thpa
ib pfr`fdbetfrhsda bs mfchtuf` be saghbifibs mbtbrakèebfs, qub prbsbetfe uef ih-
vbrshifi ib krupas (ètehgas, `hekðästhgas, rb`hkhasas) f su hetbrhar, y qub `as heg`uyb
be `f tadf ib ibghshaebs pfrf bvhtfr qub dhearäfs bxg`uhifs qubibe par oubrf ib`
jubka ibdagræthga. Bstb daib`a ea sb gfrfgtbrhzf par kachbreas ib ue úehga pfr-
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thia shea par gaf`hghaebs ib kachbrea, gaeshibrfeia fibdæs qub sub`be gaetfr gae
shstbdfs b`bgtarf`bs qub f`hbetfe `f oardfgh÷e ib dú`thp`bs pfrthias qub rbbjfe `f
mbtbrakbebhifi saghf`. F `f vbz, b` paibr tfdchèe sb ihstrhcuyb vbrthgf`dbetb gae ue
oardfta obibrf`, iatfeia ib fdp`hf futaeadäf f krupas tbrrhtarhf`dbetb sbpfrfias
ib ifrsb sus praphfs eardfs be ihsthetfs ærbfs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf. F ihobrbeghf ib`daib`a wbstdhestbr, uef Gaesthtugh÷e bsgrhtf y b` gaetra` juihghf` ib `f gaesthtugha-
ef`hifi ib `fs `bybs tbrdhef par pbrdhthr uef ihoush÷e dfyar ib` paibr. ^fäsbs gae
racustfs dhearäfs ètehgfs (gada Cè`khgf a Wuhzf) mfe hdp`bdbetfia vfrhfetbs ib
bstb daib`a.
3.6.3. ^rbshibeghf`hsda
B` prbshibeghf`hsda thbeb su arhkbe be `as Bstfias Rehias, ibsib iaeib sb mf bx-
pfeihia f atrfs rbkhaebs, heg`uybeia, gbetrf`dbetb, f Fdèrhgf @fthef. @f Gaesth-
tugh÷e bstfiauehibesb bjbrgh÷ uef paibrasf heubeghf sacrb `as gaesthtughaef`hstfs
`ftheafdbrhgfeas, pbra fibdæs b` prbshibeghf`hsda vbeäf f sup`hr uef gfrbeghf qub
b` pfr`fdbetfrhsda ea paiäf rbsa`vbr: gufeia `as eubvas pfäsbs gaequhstfrae su
heibpbeibeghf ib `f Garaef, ea tbeäfe ue rby qub puihbrf ibsbdpböfr `f ouegh÷e ib
jbob ib Bstfia (Wfrtarh, 6889). Whbeia rbpúc`hgfs, b` pfr`fdbetfrhsda prapha ib `fs
daefrquäfs gaesthtughaef`bs ib `f èpagf ea brf ue daib`a úth`.B` prbshibeghf`hsda bs ue shstbdf qub ihspbrsf b` paibr prbghsfdbetb gada rbsu`-
tfia ib `fs prbagupfghaebs ib `as gaesthtughaef`hstfs bstfiauehibesbs. Èstas tbdäfe
fetb taia `f gaegbetrfgh÷e ib` paibr, yf oubrf be ue Bjbguthva qub sb fsbdbjfrf f`
rby ib `f fethkuf dbtr÷pa`h a be `f kurf ib ue @bkhs`fthva qub bxprbsfrf she orbeas
`fs pfshaebs b hetbrbsbs ib `fs dfyaräfs papu`frbs. ^frf bsa grbfrae ue shstbdf ib
‐orbeas y gaetrfpbsas— betrb paibrbs b`bgtas ib oardf heibpbeihbetb, y sbpfrfias
tfdchèe be `f iurfgh÷e ib sus dfeiftas. Atras ihspashthvas hesthtughaef`bs (gada b`
chgfdbrf`hsda `bkhs`fthva, b` obibrf`hsda, `f b`bggh÷e heihrbgtf ib` prbshibetb db-
ihfetb ue ga`bkha b`bgtarf`, `f Gartb Wuprbdf ib Justhghf, btg.) racustbgäfe bstf fd-
p`hf ihstrhcugh÷e ib` paibr betrb dú`thp`bs fgtarbs.
Gada oub heihgfia fetbrhardbetb, b` prbshibeghf`hsda sb gfrfgtbrhzf par `f b`bg-
gh÷e heibpbeihbetb ib` prbshibetb y b` Gaekrbsa, y par `f iurfgh÷e jf ib `as dfe-
iftas ib quhbebs agupfe bsas gfrkas. Fsä, `as prbshibetbs sae b`bgtas papu`frdbetb,
yf sbf be oardf ihrbgtf a gfsh ihrbgtf (par bjbdp`a, dbihfetb ue ga`bkha b`bgtarf`,
guyas dhbdcras sae b`bgtas par as ghuififeas y qub sa`a thbeb gada tfrbf f eadh-efgh÷e ib` prbshibetb< fúe may `as Bstfias Rehias thbebe bstb shstbdf, y `f Frkbe-
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thef `a uth`hz÷ mfstf 6889). Fshdhsda, `as prbshibetbs ea pubibe sbr ibsthtuhias par
b` @bkhs`fthva, bxgbpta be ghrguestfeghfs y dbihfetb dfyaräfs bxgbpghaef`bs (gada
b` ‐juhgha pa`äthga—), y tfdpaga pubibe `as prbshibetbs fgartfr `as dfeiftas ib `as
`bkhs`fiarbs.
@f Frkbethef uth`hz÷ ue ga`bkha b`bgtarf` pfrf ibshkefr f` prbshibetb mfstf `f rboardf
gaesthtughaef` ib 6889. Be bstf ca`btf ib 689? (tadfif ib Fcf` Dbihef, 3>6>) sb acsbrvf b`
`hstfia ib gfeihiftas f b`bgtarbs ib `f ^ravheghf ib Cubeas Fhrbs qub fpayfcfe `f o÷rdu`f
^br÷e-Vuhjfea< fqub``f o÷rdu`f qub rbueäf uef dfyaräf ib b`bgtarbs be b` ga`bkha b`bgtarf`
brf gaesfkrfif prbshibetb y vhgbprbshibetb.
@as kachbreas pfr`fdbetfrhas, gada vhdas, thbebe ue Bjbguthva qub, f` dbeasoardf`dbetb, bs ib gfrægtbr ga`bkhfia, hetbkrfia par taias `as dhbdcras ib` kfch-
ebtb. Be as shstbdfs prbshibeghf`hstfs b` prbshibetb bs quhbe ihrhkb b` Bjbguthva y as
dhbdcras ib` kfchebtb sae eadcrfias y ibsthtuhias ib dfebrf ihsgrbghaef` par b`
prhdbr dfeiftfrha, ifia qub b` Bjbguthva bs ib efturf`bzf uehpbrsaef`. F su vbz, b`
prbshibetb bs shdu`tæebfdbetb jbob ib Kachbrea y jbob ib Bstfia.
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@fs rfzaebs qub ibstfg÷ @hez ib bstf dfyar hebstfch`hifi brfe:
h) @f bxhstbeghf ib ue pashc`b gaehgta betrb b` Bjbguthva y b` @bkhs`fthva
(uef ‐`bkhthdhifi iuf`—) ifia qub fdcas paibrbs sae b`bkhias be oardf
heibpbeihbetb par b` pubc`a, y par `a tfeta rbsu`tf gadp`bja rbsa`vbr ue
gaehgta betrb fdcas. Bsta pairäf ibsbdcagfr be pfræ`hshs ib kachbrea y
be `f hetbrvbegh÷e ib fgtarbs bxtrf-gaesthtughaef`bs (gada `as dh`htfrbs)
pfrf sf`ifr bstb gaehgta, gaeiughbeia f ue quhbcrb ib `f ibdagrfghf.
hh) @f rhkhibz praiughif par b` pbräaia ja ib `as dfeiftas, qub pravagf `f
gaetheuhifi ib rbshibetbs she fpayas papu`frbs a `bkhs`fthvas, f ihobrbeghf
ib `as qub agurrhräf be ue pfr`fdbetfrhsda (qub bs dæs bxhc`b f` pbrdhthr
`as vatas ib gbesurf). Bsta patbeghf `as rhbskas ib` gaehgta beueghfia be
b` pærrfoa fetbrhar, yf qub ehekuea ib fdcas paibrbs prbvè uef sf`hif gbr-gfef be b` thbdpa f` gaehgta.
hhh) @f bxhstbeghf ib uef `÷khgf ib ‐kfefiar úehga— a ib ‐sudf gbra—, ifia
qub `f b`bggh÷e papu`fr ihrbgtf ib` ^rbshibetb ihgu`tf `f gaestruggh÷e ib
gaf`hghaebs f` gaegbetrfr b` paibr be `f kurf ib` prbshibetb be ibsdbira
ib` kfchebtb.
hv) @f pashc`b heta`brfeghf gae `f apashgh÷e be tfeta b` prbshibetb, f` sbr jbob
ib Bstfia y jbob ib Kachbrea f` dhsda thbdpa, bs `äibr ib ue pfrthia pbra
ibcb rbprbsbetfr f` gaejueta ib `f Efgh÷e.@hez gaeg`uäf, betaegbs, qub `as pfäsbs `ftheafdbrhgfeas ibcäfe fiaptfr shstb-
dfs pfr`fdbetfrhas ib kachbrea. Be föas shkuhbetbs, she bdcfrka, atras fgfièdhgas
grhthgfrae sus frdfghaebs. Dfhewfrhek y Wmukfrt (6889) fef`hzfrae uef dubstrf
ib pfäsbs dæs eudbrasf qub @hez, y frrhcfrae f gaeg`ushaebs ihsthetfs. @as prbsh-
ibeghf`hsdas bstuihfias par @hez (cæshgfdbetb, be Fdèrhgf @fthef) tbeiäfe f sbr
dæs hebstfc`bs qub `as pfr`fdbetfrhsdas (be Burapf), pbra bsa brf parqub `as prbsh-
ibeghf`hsdas tbeiäfe f bstfr prbsbetbs be pfäsbs ib dbearbs hekrbsas. Gadpfrfeia pfäsbs ib shdh`fr ehvb` ib ibsfrra``a bgae÷dhga, b` shstbdf ib kachbrea (prbshibe-
ghf`hstf a pfr`fdbetfrha) ea brf ue cube prbihgtar ib` quhbcrb ibdagræthga< fdcfs
oardfs prbsbetfcfe shdh`frbs ehvb`bs ib hebstfch`hifi.
Bstf ihvbrkbeghf bdpärhgf gaheghib fibdæs gae ihobrbeghfs tb÷rhgfs betrb `as
futarbs. Dfhewfrhek y Wmukfrt frdfrae qub b` ‐jubka ib sudf gbra— qub @hez
ftrhcuäf f` prbshibeghf`hsda ea brf ghbrta, yf qub `f bxhstbeghf ib paibrbs ihvhih-
ias pbrdhtb f ihsthetas pfrthias gaetra`fr ihobrbetbs ædchtas ib paibr. Ifia qub
fdcas paibrbs sae b`bgtas ib oardf heibpbeihbetb, ue pfrthia qub ea fggbif f `f
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prbshibeghf sä pubib fsphrfr f gaetra`fr b` Gaekrbsa. Be gfdcha, be pfäsbs pfr`f-
dbetfrhstfs, bspbghf`dbetb be `as ib thpa ‐wbstdhestbr—, iaeib ue dhsda pfrthia
gaetra`f fdcas paibrbs, `f apashgh÷e ea gaetra`f ehekúe ædchta ib heubeghf. ^ar
`a tfeta, `f `÷khgf ib ‐kfefiar úehga— ea bs praphf ib `as prbshibeghf`hsdas shea ib
bstas pfr`fdbetfrhsdas.^frf bstas futarbs, b` prac`bdf ib` prbshibeghf`hsda fpfrbgb gufeia sb `a gad-
chef gae ue shstbdf ib dú`thp`bs pfrthias pa`äthgas. Be bstf ‐ihoägh` gadchefgh÷e—,
`as prbshibetbs thbeibe f bstfr be dhearäf `bkhs`fthvf, prbghsfdbetb parqub `f orfk-
dbetfgh÷e pfrthifrhf ihgu`tf qub b` pfrthia be b` kachbrea pasbf dfyaräf be b`
Gaekrbsa. Be tf`bs gfsas pubibe agurrhr `as c`aqubas betrb paibrbs tbdhias par
@hez. ^bra `f bxpbrhbeghf `ftheafdbrhgfef ib `as ú`thdas föas paeb be iuif bstf
frdfgh÷e, ifif `f bstfch`hifi ibdagræthgf ib pfäsbs qub gaejukfe prbshibeghf`hs-da y du`thpfrthihsda. Bsta bs pashc`b par `f oardfgh÷e ib gaf`hghaebs ib kachbrea,
qub mfe rbsu`tfia dugma dæs orbgubetbs ib `a qub sastbeäf @hez6. Ib bstf dfebrf,
prbshibetbs guya pfrthia bstfcf be dhearäf be b` Gaekrbsa mfe oardfia gaf`hghaebs
gae atrfs oubrzfs pfrf gaesbkuhr dfyaräfs `bkhs`fthvfs, iatfeia ib bstfch`hifi f `as
prbshibeghf`hsdas du`thpfrthihstfs.
Fue betrb futarbs gräthgas ib` prbshibeghf`hsda, gada Wfrtarh (6889), f rbgadbe-
ifgh÷e ib @hez ib fiaptfr ue shstbdf pfr`fdbetfrha be `as pfäsbs `ftheafdbrhgfeas
ea oub gadpfrthif. ^frf Wfrtarh, `f g`fvb qub mfgb oueghaefr f ue pfr`fdbetfrhsdabs `f ihsghp`hef pfrthifrhf: sa`a gufeia b` prhdbr dhehstra thbeb fsbkurfia b` fpaya
ib su pfrthia a gaf`hgh÷e be b` ^fr`fdbeta, bs qub pubib kacbrefr gae èxhta. Be
gfdcha, she ihsghp`hef, b` pfr`fdbetfrhsda sb vub`vb ue ‐fsfdc`bäsda ihsouegha-
ef`—, parqub gfif dbihif ibcb sbr ihsguthif y par beib as Bjbguthvas sae f`tfdbetb
hebstfc`bs, ibpbeihbeia ib dfetbebr dfyaräfs shbdprb prbgfrhfs. Be fusbeghf ib
räkhif ihsghp`hef pfrthifrhf, betaegbs, b` pfr`fdbetfrhsda ea pubib oueghaefr. Be
`f dfyaräf ib `as pfäsbs `ftheafdbrhgfeas, `as pfrthias gfrbgbe ib bsas ehvb`bs ibihsghp`hef, surkhias f` gf`ar ib` efghdhbeta ib` ‐pfrthia ib dfsfs— ib gadhbezas ib`
shk`a ]]. Wh bstas pfäsbs fiaptfrfe ue shstbdf pfr`fdbetfrha gfrbghbeia ib pfrthias
ihsghp`hefias, b` rhbska sbräf uef oubrtb hebstfch`hifi ib `as kachbreas.
Gmbhcuc (3>>;) mf rbf`hzfia `f gaetrfstfgh÷e bdpärhgf dæs hdpartfetb ib `fs mh-
p÷tbshs ib @hez. Begubetrf qub bobgthvfdbetb as pfäsbs prbshibeghf`hstfs mfe tbehia,
be pradbiha, ibdagrfghfs dæs hebstfc`bs qub `as pfäsbs pfr`fdbetfrhas. Whe bdcfr-
6 Wacrb bstb pfrthgu`fr pubib gaesu`tfrsb Gmfsqubtth (3>>>).
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ka, sasthbeb qub bsta ea mf agurrhia par uef gfrfgtbrästhgf heträesbgf ib` prbshibe-
ghf`hsda, shea par b` gaetbxta iaeib gfif shstbdf ib kachbrea oub dæs usuf`. Wbkúe
Gmbhcuc, eudbrasas pfäsbs gae ue `bkfia ib kachbreas dh`htfrbs, bspbghf`dbetb be
Fdèrhgf @fthef, fp`hgfrae oardfs prbshibeghf`hstfs gufeia fiaptfrae `f ibdagrf-
ghf. Bsb `bkfia dh`htfr, gae su mhstarhf ib hetradhsh÷e ib `fs Oubrzfs Frdfifs befsuetas pa`äthgas, bs f gfusf qub praiugb f hebstfch`hifi, ea b` prbshibeghf`hsda. @f
ghrguestfeghf mhst÷rhgf ib qub eudbrasas pfäsbs `ftheafdbrhgfeas tuvhbrfe bsb `bkf-
ia dh`htfr y fiaptfrfe oardfs prbshibeghf`hstfs bs `a qub bxp`hgf `f dfyar hebstfch-
`hifi ibdagræthgf be bstas pfäsbs. ^ar `a tfeta, ea ftrhcuyb f` shstbdf ib kachbrea `f
rfz÷e ib `as quhbcrbs ibdagræthgas be `f rbkh÷e.
3.6.9. B` sbdhprbshibeghf`hsda
B` ``fdfia sbdhprbshibeghf`hsda gadchef b`bdbetas ib `as shstbdfs prbshibeghf-
`hstf y pfr`fdbetfrha. Wu daib`a arhkhef` sb ibsfrra``÷ be `f _ Sbpúc`hgf Orfegbsf
ibsib 682=, fuequb eudbrasas pfäsbs `a mfe fiaptfia ibsib betaegbs, heg`uybeia
vfrhas ib rbghbetbs ibdagrfthzfgh÷e be Burapf ib` Bstb y Æorhgf.
B` sbdhprbshibeghf`hsda gadpfrtb gae b` prbshibeghf`hsda `f b`bggh÷e ihrbgtf y
papu`fr ib` prbshibetb. Ea acstfetb, fibdæs ib` prbshibetb bxhstb ue prhdbr dhehstra
ibshkefia par b` ^fr`fdbeta, gada agurrb be b` pfr`fdbetfrhsda. Dhbetrfs qub b` prbshibetb gudp`b b` ra` ib jbob ib Bstfia, b` prhdbr dhehstra bs b` jbob ib` kachbrea.
^bra b` prbshibetb ea bs shdp`bdbetb uef kurf gbrbdaehf`, ib uehifi efghaef`,
shea qub sbkúe b` gaetbxta pubib sbr quhbe vbrifibrfdbetb ibtbetb b` paibr. Bsta
agurrb gufeia prbshibetb y prhdbr dhehstra pbrtbebgbe f` dhsda pfrthia pa`äthga<
be tf`bs gfsas, sub`b prbiadhefr b` prbshibetb, iatfia ib` rbspf`ia papu`fr qub `b
atarkf `f b`bggh÷e ihrbgtf. Be gfdcha, gufeia fdcfs kurfs pbrtbebgbe f pfrthias
ihsthetas (`f `fdfif ‐gamfchtfgh÷e—) sub`b prbvf`bgbr b` prhdbr dhehstra, qub gubetf
gae uef dfyaräf pfr`fdbetfrhf qub rbspf`if sus hehghfthvfs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
Wfrtarh (6889) prapaeb f` sbdhprbshibeghf`hsda gada uef apgh÷e ftrfgthvf pfrf
`as pfäsbs `ftheafdbrhgfeas. Be su vhsh÷e, b` sbdhprbshibeghf`hsda pbrdhtb bvhtfr
`as c`aqubas betrb paibrbs praphas ib` prbshibeghf`hsda, yf qub gufeia b` prbsh-
ibetb y b` ^fr`fdbeta garrbspaeibe f pfrthias ihsthetas, b` shstbdf ‐asgh`f— pfrf
ifr dfyar paibr f` ^fr`fdbeta, be `f kurf ib` prhdbr dhehstra. Whe bdcfrka, efif
be `fs Gaesthtughaebs sbdhprbshibeghf`hstfs kfrfethzf qub ue pashc`b gaehgta betrb
fdcas paibrbs ibcf ebgbsfrhfdbetb rbsa`vbrsb ib bstf dfebrf, y `f bxpbrhbeghf dæsrbghbetb mf ftbeufia be pfrtb b` betushfsda sbdhprbshibeghf`hstf ib gadhbezas ib
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púc hgfs dæs hdpartfetbs rbquhbrb `f pfrthghpfgh÷e ib dæs ib ue ehvb` ib kachbrea be
su b`fcarfgh÷e y/a hdp`bdbetfgh÷e. @f dbtæoarf trfihghaef` ib` obibrf`hsda gada uef
‐tartf par gfpfs— sb rbvb`f heúth` gufeia sb acsbrvf `a betrbdbzg`fia qub sb mf``fe `as
ehvb bs efghaef` y sucefghaef` be f prægthgf rbf` ib fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
Be ue Bstfia obibrf`, `f gabxhstbeghf ib ihsthetas ehvb`bs ib kachbrea hebvhtf- c`bdbetb kbebrf prac`bdfs ib gaarihefgh÷e hetbrkucbrefdbetf` qub sbræe acjbta
ib ebkaghfgh÷e hetbrjurhsihgghaef`. @f eagh÷e ib ‐rb`fghaebs hetbrkucbrefdbetf`bs—
a SHK (Fstfrhtf, Caehofgha y Ib` Gak`hfea, 3>63) bs uth`hzfif gae orbgubeghf pfrf
bstuihfr `f iheædhgf ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs be Bstfia obibrf`bs, tfdchèe ``fdfias
‐du`thehvb`—. ^ar SHK sb bethbeib `f bxhstbeghf ib shstbdfs ib gaebxh÷e betrb `as
ihsthetas ehvb`bs ib kachbrea, yf sbf qub bstèe bstfc`bghias eardfthvfdbetb a qub
pasbfe ue gfrægtbr dæs heoardf` (gada `as `fzas betrb oueghaefrhas begfrkfias ibkbsthaefr `fs ihsthetfs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs qub sb hdp`bdbetfe sacrb b` tbrrhtarha, a `f
praphf fgthvhifi ib `as pfrthias pa`äthgas gae rbspaesfch`hifibs ib kachbrea be `as
ihsthetas ehvb`bs). Ib mbgma, `f Gaesthtugh÷e Efghaef` frkbethef ea bspbghgf g`f-
rfdbetb dbihfetb què dbgfehsdas ibcbræe apbrfr bstfs hetbrfgghaebs betrb ehvb`bs
ib kachbrea, bspbghf`dbetb f a rbobrhia f fs rb`fghaebs betrb as aibrbs Bjbguthvas
efghaef`, pravheghf`bs y duehghpf`bs (b` ra` `bkhs`fthva ib `fs pravheghfs be `f bsobrf
efghaef` sä sb mf``f ibehif, be `f kurf ib` Wbefia). Fsä, `f frthgu`fgh÷e qubif
`hcrfif f pragbsas ib gaarihefgh÷e fi mag qub pubibe rbsu`tfr ib f hehghfthvf efgha-ef`, sucefghaef` a gaejuetf.
@f grbfgh÷e ib ‐Gaesbjas Obibrf`bs— mf rbspaeihia justfdbetb f `f ebgbshifi
ib hesthtughaef`hzfr dbgfehsdas ib gaarihefgh÷e hetbrkucbrefdbetf` ib `f kbsth÷e
púc`hgf, bspbghf`dbetb f pfrthr ib `f dfyar ibsgbetrf`hzfgh÷e ib gadpbtbeghfs mf-
ghf `as ehvb`bs pravheghf`bs agurrhif be `as föas 8>. Bxhstbe dæs ib 9> Gaesbjas
Obibrf`bs (Fstfrhtf, Caehofgha y Ib` Gak`hfea, 3>63) fgtuf`dbetb be `f Frkbethef,
gae `f pfrthghpfgh÷e ib rbprbsbetfetbs ib `f Efgh÷e y `fs pravheghfs, apbrfeia beuef du`thp`hghifi ib ærbfs tbdæthgfs (sbkurhifi hetbrhar, ouegh÷e púc`hgf, vhvhbeif,
heiustrhf, turhsda, ihsgfpfghifi, btg). Bsta ea hdp`hgf, ib taifs dfebrfs, qub `fs
prheghpf`bs ibghshaebs ib gaarihefgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sb tadbe be bstas ædch-
tas< ihsthetfs kbsthaebs efghaef`bs pasbbe ihobrbetbs bstrftbkhfs ib rb`fghaefdhbeta
gae as kachbreas pravheghf`bs, y ib mbgma hestfeghfs ‐ch`ftbrf`bs—, ib `f Efgh÷e gae
gfif pravheghf sbpfrfifdbetb, sae usuf`bs be eudbrasfs ærbfs.
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7. S B^SBWBEYFGH×E ^A@ÄYHGF
Gada vhdas be b` Gfpätu`a H, `fs ibdagrfghfs gaetbdparæebfs sb arkfehzfe gada
rbkädbebs rbprbsbetfthvas. B` frtägu`a 33 ib `f Gaesthtugh÷e Efghaef` frkbethef, par
bjbdp`a, bstfc`bgb qub ‐b` pubc`a ea ib`hcbrf eh kachbref shea par dbiha ib sus rbprb-sbetfetbs—. @as ghuififeas, f su vbz, ea pubibe aribefr f sus rbprbsbetfetbs g÷da
vatfr be `fs fsfdc`bfs `bkhs`fthvfs< be `f rbprbsbetfgh÷e daibref ea bxhstb b` ‐dfe-
ifta hdpbrfthva—. ±G÷da trftfe betaegbs `as ghuififeas ib qub `as rbprbsbetfetbs ib-
beife sus hetbrbsbs1 Be prhdbr `ukfr, dbihfetb `f hdp`äghtf pradbsf ib sfeghaefr be
outurfs b`bgghaebs f `as rbprbsbetfetbs qub ea acrbe ib bsf dfebrf (fuequb yf vhdas,
be b` Gfpätu`a H, `as prac`bdfs ib heoardfgh÷e bxhstbetbs pfrf bjbrgbr bstf fggauetf-
ch`hty). X be sbkueia `ukfr, be tfeta `as rbprbsbetfetbs heihvhiuf`bs bstæe arkfehzfias
be pfrthias pa`äthgas qub sasthbebe uef ibtbrdhefif fkbeif ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, b`ghuififea pubib gaeagbr be trfzas kbebrf`bs g÷da sb gadpartfræ uef vbz qub agupb
b` gfrka. ^ar bsa `as pfrthias gudp`be ue ra` oueifdbetf` be va`vbr ibdagræthgf `f
rbprbsbetfgh÷e pa`äthgf, f` dbeas sh pasbbe ghbrtf bstfch`hifi, frrfhka saghf` b hibeth-
gfgh÷e gae gursas rbgaeaghc`bs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf (Fcf` Dbihef, 3>6>).
7.6. ^frthias ^a`äthgas
Whkuhbeia f bstb futar, betbeibrbdas qub ‐ue pfrthia bs uef hesthtugh÷e, gae uefarkfehzfgh÷e qub prbtbeib sbr iurfibrf y bstfc`b, qub cusgf bxp`äghtfdbetb heuhr be b`
Bstfia, kbebrf`dbetb trftfeia ib uchgfr f sus rbprbsbetfetbs rbgaeaghias be pashghaebs
ib` kachbrea, f trfvès ib f gadpbtbeghf b`bgtarf` a pragurfeia f`kúe atra thpa ib sustbe-
ta papu`fr— (Fcf` Dbihef, 3>>3). Wu e bs b` ib heuhr be `fs pa`äthgfs fiaptfifs ibsib
b` Bstfia, y b` dbiha pfrf akrfr`a bs gaesbkuhr `f fimbsh÷e papu`fr (`a guf` be ibdagrf-
ghf hdp`hgf cusgfr b` trhueoa b`bgtarf`). Bsta `as ihobrbeghf ib atrfs arkfehzfghaebs qub
tfdchèe cusgfe heuhr sacrb b` Bstfia, pbra she uchgfr f sus dhbdcras ihrbgtfdbetb beè` y she pfrthghpfr be pragbsas b`bgtarf`bs (gada `as krupas ib hetbrès, qub fef`hzfrbdas
dæs fib`fetb). Bstb ra` oueifdbetf` ib `as pfrthias pfrf ibehr `f arhbetfgh÷e ib `fs pa-
`äthgfs púc`hgfs as vub`vb hdpartfetbs fkrbkfiarbs ib hetbrbsbs saghf`bs, qub gaeoardfe
gaf`hghaebs ib dú`thp`bs sbgtarbs ihobrbetbs ib f saghbifi.
Wub`b uchgfrsb f `as ihsthetas pfrthias be ue bspfgha hiba`÷khga gfrfgtbrhzfia par
tèrdheas gada ‐hzquhbrif—, ‐gbetra— y ‐ibrbgmf—. Yrfs `f Sbva`ugh÷e orfegbsf, `as
dhbdcras ib `f Gaevbegh÷e sb fkrupfcfe be ihsthetas sbgtarbs ib` rbgheta< f `f hz-
quhbrif, `as krupas dæs rfihgf`bs (`as jfgacheas), y f `f ibrbgmf `as dæs daibrfias(`as khraeiheas). Bsta gaeiuja f kbebrf`hzfr as tèrdheas ib hzquhbrif y ibrbgmf pfrf
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ibeatfr `fs pashghaebs ib `as pfrthias, pbrdhthbeia gae ue shdp`b tèrdhea ibsgrhchr
shdp`hgfifdbetb b` gaejueta ib hibfs fsaghfifs f uef oubrzf pa`äthgf. Dæs qub ue
gaetbehia fcsa`uta, fs eaghaebs ib hzquhbrif y ibrbgmf mfe hia vfrhfeia be b` thbd-
pa, y sub`be sbr dæs úth`bs be tèrdheas rb`fthvas (‐b` pfrthia ] bstæ f f hzquhbrif ib`
pfrthia X—) qub pfrf rbbjfr ibehghaebs gaegrbtfs ib pa`äthgf.
G`fra qub hzquhbrif y ibrbgmf bs sa`a uef ib fs pashc`bs ihvhshaebs qub aribef b` tf-
c bra pa`äthga. B` ‐g hvfjb— iadhefetb be uef saghbifi (bs ibghr, `f orfgturf qub ibtbrdh-
ef f oardfgh÷e ib krupas saghf`bs y pa`äthgas arkfehzfias be tarea f ue tbdf) pubib ea
sbr hiba`÷khga, shea ib thpa ètehga, rb`hkhasa, `hekðästhga, gu`turf`, urcfea-rurf`, btg. Be
`f Frkbethef, par bjbdp`a, iurfetb frka thbdpa as prheghpf`bs pfrthias prbsbetfrae df-
yarbs ihobrbeghfs hiba ÷khgfs f su hetbrhar (gae f`fs hetbrefs hzquhbrif y ibrbgmf cfstfetb
dfrgfifs) qub `fs bxhstbetbs betrb b``as. F su vbz, `f gadpbtbeghf pa`äthgf pubib bstfrbstrugturfif par dú`thp`bs g`hvfjbs, ifeia `ukfr kbebrf`dbetb f shstbdfs ib dú`thp`bs
pfrthias pa`äthgas qub rbprbsbetfe f as ihobrbetbs krupas. @f hetbeshifi ib bstas g hvfjbs
tfdchèe vfräf be ihsthetas gaetbxtas, y as äibrbs pa`äthgas dfehacrfe pbrdfebetbdbetb
pfrf va vbr dæs rb`bvfetbs fqub` as g hvfjbs be as qub su pfrthia bs dæs papu`fr, y pfrf
ibsfgthvfr as g`hvfjbs qub ea a cbebghfe (vbr ‐mbrbstbshs— be b` Gfpätu`a H).
B` eúdbra ib pfrthias pa`äthgas, qub be pfrtb ibpbeib ib` eúdbra ib g`hvfjbs
prbsbetbs be uef saghbifi, bs uea ib `as grhtbrhas mfchtuf`bs pfrf g`fshgfr f `as
shstbdfs ib pfrthias. Iuvbrkbr (6826), par bjbdp`a, ihsthekuh÷ betrb `as shstbdfs ib pfrthia úehga, `as chpfrthihsdas y `as du`thpfrthihsdas. ^bra bstfs shdp`bs gftbka-
räfs agu`tfcfe oubrtbs ihobrbeghfs f su hetbrhar. ^ar bsa, Wfrtarh (68;?) rbe÷ `f g`fsh-
gfgh÷e uth`hzfeia uef thpa`akäf qub gadchef b` eúdbra ib pfrthias gae f ihstfeghf
hiba`÷khgf bxhstbetb betrb b``as:
• Whstbdf ib pfrthia úehga. Bxhstb ue úehga pfrthia ifif `f pramhchgh÷e ib
atras pfrthias (par bjbdp`a, be Gmhef).
• Whstbdf ib pfrthia mbkbd÷ehga. Wh chbe bxhstbe atras pfrthias, `fs b`bgghaebsea sae `hcrbs y gadpbththvfs, par `a guf` shbdprb b` dhsda pfrthia sb hdpaeb
(par bjbdp`a, b` ^SH be Dèxhga iurfetb cubef pfrtb ib` shk`a ]]).
• Whstbdf ib pfrthia prbiadhefetb. Bxhstbe dú`thp`bs pfrthias y `f gadpbtbeghf
betrb b``as bxhstb, pbra thbeib f hdpaebrsb shbdprb b` dhsda pfrthia (par bjbdp`a,
b` pfrthia saghf`ibd÷grftf ib Wubghf iurfetb vfrhfs iègfifs ib` shk`a pfsfia).
• Chpfrthihsda. Mfy gadpbtbeghf pbra sa`fdbetb ias pfrthias sae rb`bvfetbs y
sb f`tbrefe be b` kachbrea (par bjbdp`a, Bstfias Rehias).
• ^`upfrthihsda `hdhtfia. Bxhstbe ib trbs f ghega pfrthias rb`bvfetbs, qub oar-
dfe gaf`hghaebs pfrf kacbrefr (par bjbdp`a, F`bdfehf).
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• ^`urhpfrthihsda bxtrbda. Bxhstbe dæs ib ghega pfrthias rb`bvfetbs, gada be
Cè`khgf, Hsrfb` u Ma`feif. Be f`kueas gfsas, bsta agurrb par f krfe ihstfeghf
bxhstbetb betrb as bxtrbdas ib` frga hiba`÷khga. Be tf`bs gfsas, f gadpbtbe-
ghf pa`äthgf bs ‐pa`frhzfif—, y bs sudfdbetb gadp`bja gaestruhr gaf`hghaebs
ib kachbrea b hdp`bdbetfr uef fkbeif ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
@f hetbrfggh÷e betrb shstbdfs ib kachbrea y shstbdfs ib pfrthias if `ukfr f ih-
obrbetbs pragbsas ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf. Re pfr`fdbetfrhsda chpfrthihstf, par bjbd-
p`a, gaegbetrf b` paibr be b` pfrthia ib kachbrea, qub pubib oardfr dfyaräf she
ebgbshifi ib gaf`hghaebs. Rth`hzfeia tèrdheas ib` Gfpätu`a H, sb trftf ib uef shtuf-
gh÷e gae cfja eúdbra ib ‐fgtarbs ib vbta—, y par `a tfeta ib dfyar ofgh`hifi pfrf
daihgfr b` stftu qua ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. Be b` atra bxtrbda, be ue prbshibe-
ghf`hsda gae p`urhpfrthihsda bxtrbda b` Bjbguthva ebgbshtf gaestruhr gaf`hghaebsqub `b pbrdhtfe fpracfr su fkbeif be b` Gaekrbsa, y par `a tfeta sae vfrhas `as
pfrthias gae ‐vbta—.
7.3. Krupas ib hetbrbsbs y garparfghaebs
Wh chbe `as pfrthias fkrbkfe y rbprbsbetfe hetbrbsbs saghf`bs, bxhstbe atrfs väfs par
`fs guf`bs bstas sb bxprbsfe. Be `äebfs kbebrf`bs, paibdas ihsthekuhr ias väfs ihs-
thetfs par `fs guf`bs bsta pubib agurrhr:
• @f väf ‐p`urf`hstf—. Fquä mfy dú`thp`bs fsaghfghaebs be gadpbtbeghf betrb
sä, y bstfs arkfehzfghaebs sae dfyardbetb ib pfrthghpfgh÷e va`uetfrhf. B`
daib`a bstfiauehibesb, gae su pra`hobrfgh÷e ib `acchbs fut÷eadas qub rb-
prbsbetfe ue fcfehga ib hetbrbsbs saghf`bs (bdprbsfrhas, sheihgf`bs, ib juch-
`fias, ib gaesudhiarbs, fdchbetf`hstfs, ib partfiarbs ib frdfs, btg.) pfrf
heuhr be fs ibghshaebs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf, sb fgbrgf f` daib`a p`urf`hstf. Be
uef tbdprfef gräthgf f bstb daib`a, Wgmfttsgmebhibr (68?>) sastuva qub of-varbgäf f `as heihvhiuas ib dfyarbs hekrbsas y biugfgh÷e, qub gaetfcfe gae
dæs fdp`hfs pashch`hifibs ib oardfr arkfehzfghaebs y par beib ib heuhr be
`f pa`äthgf púc`hgf. Gada vhdas be b` Gfpätu`a H, ib taifs dfebrfs, Cfud-
kfrtebr bt f` (3>>8) sasthbebe qub ea ebgbsfrhfdbetb `as gfdchas ib pa`äthgf
púc`hgf rbspaeibe f `fs prbobrbeghfs ib `as krupas dæs rhgas a paibrasas,
ifia qub bstas pubibe c`aqubfrsb dutufdbetb y qub `f hibethifi ib quhbe
gaeiugb b` kachbrea thbeib f prhdfr be `f ibehgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs.
• @f väf ‐garparfthvf—. Fquä mfy ue dbear eúdbra ib fsaghfghaebs, y be kb-
ebrf` bstfs prbsbetfe ue gfrægtbr ac`hkftarha. Wgmdhttbr (6883) ihsthekub be-
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trb ue ‐garparfthvhsda bstftf`—, be b` guf` `f saghbifi ghvh` thbeb uef cfjf
futaeadäf y bs b` Bstfia quhbe arkfehzf f `fs fsaghfghaebs qub rbprbsbetfe
f `as krupas saghf`bs (cæshgfdbetb, sheihgftas y gædfrfs bdprbsfrhfs), y ue
‐garparfthvhsda saghf`— a ‐ebagarparfthvhsda—, be b` guf` `f futaeadäf ib
bstas krupas bs dfyar y gadp`bdbetf f `f rbprbsbetfgh÷e pfrthifrhf, shbeiabstfs arkfehzfghaebs rbf`bs pfrthghpfetbs ib `as pragbsas ib ebkaghfgh÷e y
ibghsh÷e be ærbfs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf. Dhbetrfs qub b` garparfthvhsda bstftf`
bs dæs prapha ib rbkädbebs futarhtfrhas, b` ebagarparfthvhsda bstæ prbsbetb
be dú`thp`bs rbkädbebs ibdagræthgas.
@as futarbs qub bstuihfe bstfs oardfs ib hetbrdbihfgh÷e ib hetbrbsbs mfe gubs-
thaefia qub, be f prægthgf, f pa`äthgf pfrthifrhf sbf shbdprb b` dbgfehsda dæs oubr-
tb ib rbprbsbetfgh÷e ib `as krupas saghf`bs. Be vfrhas pfäsbs burapbas, par bjbdp`a,Wgmdhttbr (be Duegl y Weyibr, 3>>9) sasthbeb qub `f rbprbsbetfgh÷e garparfthvf bs
dæs oubrtb qub `f pfrthifrhf, ifia qub trfihghaef`dbetb `as pfrthias mfe shia dbras
gfef`bs `bkhs`fthvas ib krupas saghf`bs arkfehzfias. Ref mhp÷tbshs g`æshgf sacrb `f
Frkbethef (Ih Yb``f, 68;6) sböf`f `f ihgu`tfi ib `f curkubsäf pfrf gaesa`hifr ue
pfrthia pa`äthga gaesbrvfiar rb`bvfetb, fetb a guf` prharhzfrae `f fggh÷e garparfthvf
ihrbgtf, gae ebkfthvfs gaesbgubeghfs pfrf `f ibdagrfghf frkbethef.
7.7. @f curagrfghf gada fgtar y gada hesthtugh÷eGada sb dbeghae÷ be b` Gfpätu`a H, `f curagrfghf pubib sbr ue fgtar rb`bvfetb be b`
pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. Gada sböf`f f tbaräf ib` prheghpf`/fkbetb, gufeia
`as oueghaefrhas pa`äthgas ib kachbrea ib`bkfe `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib sus ibghshaebs
be `as cur÷grftfs, sb beorbetfe gae ue prac`bdf ib fshdbträf ib heoardfgh÷e: `as
fkbetbs rbf`hzfræe fgghaebs qub ea shbdprb pairæe sbr acsbrvfifs, y dbeas fúe
gaetra`fifs a bvf`ufifs. Bsta pubib rbiueifr be shtufghaebs ebkfthvfs pfrf b` oue-
ghaefdhbeta bstftf`, gada uef ièch` rbeihgh÷e ib gubetfs, `f gfpturf curagræthgf parfgtarbs prhvfias a b` bxgbshva grbghdhbeta ib `f curagrfghf. @f rbspubstf mfchtuf`
ib `as `äibrbs ib` kachbrea (`f pa`hthzfgh÷e ib `f curagrfghf dbihfetb `f uchgfgh÷e ib
pbrsaefs ib gaefezf, grbfeia eubvfs gfpfs qub supbrvhsbe f `as cur÷grftfs) tfd-
chèe prbsbetf sus praphas prac`bdfs, heg`uhif `f dbear gfpfghifi tègehgf y gaeagh-
dhbeta bspbgäga ib `fs pbrsaefs f``ä ibshkefifs. Bstf tbesh÷e yf mfcäf shia fethgh-
pfia par b` prapha Dfx [bcbr: `as `äibrbs pa`äthgas quhbrbe gbetrf`hzfr y gaetra`fr
b` oueghaefdhbeta ib` Bstfia, pbra f `f vbz ebgbshtfe bspbghf`hstfs (cur÷grftfs) qub`bs pbrdhtfe ``bvfr fib`fetb su fkbeif ib pa`äthgfs.
Be `f g`æshgf vhsh÷e ib Ehslfebe (68;6), b` cur÷grftf bs be ghbrtf dbihif ue da-
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
98
`f Gartb Wuprbdf frkbethef be rb`fgh÷e f `f `hdphbzf ib` Shfgmub`a) sbfe ue tbrgbr
‐prheghpf`— be ghbrtfs ærbfs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
^besfr b` ra` ib` Bjbguthva be b` ihsböa ib `f bstrugturf curagræthgf bs dæs úth`
pfrf ue prbshibeghf`hsda gada b` frkbethea. @f bvhibeghf bdpärhgf sukhbrb qub he-
g`usa be Bstfias Rehias, iaeib b` Gaekrbsa bs heusuf`dbetb oubrtb, b` prbshibetb pasbb fdp`hf `hcbrtfi pfrf grbfr y daihgfr arkfehsdas, fsä gada pfrf uchgfr f su
prapha pbrsaef` ib gaefezf be ihsthetfs gfpfs ib `f bstrugturf curagræthgf pfrf
gaetra`fr su oueghaefdhbeta (Mawb`` be prbesf< @bwhs be prbesf). @as prbshibetbs
tfdchèe pubibe grbfr curagrfghfs gae shdh`frbs ra`bs f `as ib arkfehsdas grbfias
par b` Gaekrbsa, ib daia ib heuhr dæs be su ihsböa y gadpartfdhbeta pastbrhar.
Be b` gfsa frkbethea bstf fggh÷e ueh`ftbrf` ib` Bjbguthva bs fúe dæs dfrgfif, yf qub
b` Gaekrbsa gbib dæs prbrrakfthvfs be bstb rucra f` prbshibetb. Bs hdpashc`b betbe-ibr `f bstrugturf ib `f fidhehstrfgh÷e púc`hgf she fef`hzfr, sacrb taia, `fs prbobrbe-
ghfs y bsth`as ib gaeiuggh÷e ib quhbe agupf `f prbshibeghf. Ihgma bsa, tfdchèe ibcb
eatfrsb qub gufeia b` Gaekrbsa sä hetbrvhbeb thbeib f ihsböfr bstrugturfs ihobrbetbs
f `fs qub grbfe `as prbshibetbs. F`bssfeira y Kh`ha (3>6>) dubstrfe qub `as arkfehs-
das ibsgbetrf`hzfias ib `f fidhehstrfgh÷e púc`hgf efghaef`, gufeia sae grbfias par
b` Gaekrbsa, thbebe dfyar futaeadäf rbspbgta f `as prbshibetbs qub gufeia bstas
`as ihsböfe par ibgrbta. F `f marf ib betbeibr b` gadpartfdhbeta ib uef bstrugturf
curagræthgf, su arhkbe eardfthva bvhibetbdbetb hdpartf. Ea taias as arkfehsdas, par a tfeta, pasbbe shdh`frbs gfrfgtbrästhgfs b hegbethvas
ib oueghaefdhbeta. Gada sböf`f Dab (3>>=: 297), dæs f``æ ib` arhkbe @bkhs`fthva a
Bjbguthva ib ue ærbf, ‐f`kuefs fkbeghfs curagræthgfs surkbe gada rbspubstf ib `as
pa`äthgas f `fs ibdfeifs ib `as krupas (ib hetbrès), y f`kuefs atrfs, gada bstrugturfs
qub `as praphas pa`äthgas gaestruybe pfrf b``as dhsdas—. Ihsthetas arkfehsdas pub-
ibe tbebr betaegbs gadpbtbeghfs supbrpubstfs. A pubibe fcagfrsb f ue dhsda tbdf
pbra ibobeihbeia ihobrbetbs hetbrbsbs heva`ugrfias be bsf tbdæthgf. Bstfs suth`bzfs ib`dueia curagræthga sae fúe dæs hdpartfetbs be ue shstbdf prbshibeghf`hstf, iaeib
`f sbpfrfgh÷e ib paibrbs vub`vb ihgu`tasf `f fpracfgh÷e ib `fs `bybs y iaeib par `a
tfeta bs be `fs rbk`fdbetfghaebs fidhehstrfthvfs iaeib sb tadfe ibehghaebs g`fvb ib
pa`äthgf púc hgf< be gfdcha, be ue pfr`fdbetfrhsda [bstdhestbr, iaeib bs dæs oægh`
fpracfr `bybs, `f ihsputf pa`äthgf sacrb bstfs gubsthaebs pubib sbr dbear (Dab, 3>>=).
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
2>
9. BE SBWRDBE
Bstb gfpätu`a prbsbet÷ `as fspbgtas prheghpf`bs ib `fs hesthtughaebs pa`äthgfs be `f
dbihif be qub heuybe sacrb `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. @as shstbdfs ib kachbrea ib-
ebe f ihstrhcugh÷e marhzaetf` y vbrthgf` ib` paibr. Be b` prhdbr sbethia, bstfc`bgbe frb`fgh÷e betrb as paibrbs Bjbguthva y @bkhs`fthva: ib oush÷e be b` gfsa ib` pfr`fdbe-
tfrhsda, y ib sbpfrfgh÷e be b` gfsa ib` prbshibeghf`hsda. B` oueghaefdhbeta bobgthva
ib gfif uea ib bstas shstbdfs, g`fra, ea ibpbeib sa`a ib `f `btrf gaesthtughaef` shea
ib gaetbxtas pa`äthgas ib gfif pfäs, betrb `as guf`bs be bstb gfpätu`a ibstfgfdas f
`as shstbdfs ib pfrthias. Yfdchèe fef`hzfdas atrfs oardfs ib hetbrdbihfgh÷e ib
hetbrbsbs (p`urf`hstf y garparfthvf) qub fobgtfe b` daia be qub `fs pa`äthgfs sae pra-
iughifs y fpracfifs. Ohef`dbetb, ihsguthdas f `f curagrfghf gada ue praiugta ib
`fs gadpbtbeghfs pa`äthgfs betrb taias bstas fgtarbs, pbra tfdchèe gada ue fgtar besä dhsda, qub hetbrfgtúf bstrftèkhgfdbetb gae `as atras jukfiarbs.
Sbobrbeghfs
Fcf` Dbihef, Jufe Dfeub`, ‐B`bdbetas tb÷rhgas pfrf b` feæ`hshs gaetbdparæebaib `as pfrt hias pa`äthgas: ue rbaribefdhbeta ib` gfdpa sbdæethga—, be Dfrgb-`a Gfvfrazazzh y Jufe Dfeub` Fcf` Dbihef (Gadps.). B` fsbiha f `f pa`äthgf.
@as pfrthias `ftheafdbrhgfeas be `f brf eba`hcbrf`, Sasfrha, Mada Wfphbes,3>>3.
Fcf` Dbihef, Jufe Dfeub`, Dfeuf` ib Ghbeghf ^a`äthgf, Cubeas Fhrbs, Buibcf,3>6>.
Fcf` Dbihef, Jufe Dfeub`, Dfeuf` ib `f Eubvf Fidhehst rfgh÷e ^úc`hgf Frkbe-thef, Cubeas Fhrbs, Frhb`, 3>63.
F`bssfeira, Dfrtäe y Feirès Kh`ha, ‐Gufeia b` arhkbe hdpartf: ^rbshibetbs yGaekrbsas be `f grbfgh÷e ib arkfehsdas ibsgbetrf`hzfias be Frkbethef, 68=7-3>>;—, Sbvhstf ib` G@FI Sboardf y Ibdagrfghf, 9=:698-6;9, 3>6>.
Fstfrhtf, Dfrtäe, Wfethfka Caehofgha y Eftf`hf Ib` Gak`hfea, ‐Sb`fghaebs He-tbrkucbrefdbetf`bs be `f fidhehstrfgh÷e púc`hgf frkbethef—, be Jufe Dfeub`Fcf` Dbihef y Marfgha Gfa (gadps.) Dfeuf` ib `f Eubvf Fidhehstrfgh÷e^úc`hgf Frkbethef, Cubeas Fhrbs: Buibcf, 3>63.
Cfudkfrtebr, Orfel S. bt f`., @accyhek fei pa`hgy gmfekb. [ma whes, wma `asbsfei wmy, Gmhgfka, Rehvbrshty ao Gmhgfka ^rbss, 3>>8.
Gf`va, Brebsta y Biufria F`bdæe, ‐Fef`yzhek @bkhs`fthvb Wuggbss he @ftheFdbrhgf: Ymb Gfsb ao Ibdagrfthg Frkbethef—, be Kuh``brda A‘Iaeeb``, Ja-sbpm Yu`gmhe y Fukusta _frfs (Bis.) Ebw _ahgbs he tmb Wtuiy ao Ibdagrfgyhe @fthe Fdbrhgf, [fsmhektae IG: [aairaw [h`sae Gbetbr oar Hetbrefthaef`
Wgma`frs, 3>>;.Gmfsqubtth, Ifehb`, ‐@f supbrvhvbeghf ib `fs gaf`hghaebs prbshibeghf`bs ib ka-
chbrea be Fdèrhgf @fthef—, ^astIftf, 66: 63?7-683, 3>>?.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
26
Gmbhcuc, Jasè Fetaeha, ^rbshibethf`hsd, ^fr`hfdbetfrhsd fei Ibdagrfgy, Gfd- cr hikb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>;.
Ih Yb``f, Yargufta , ‐@f cúsqubif ib `f o÷rdu`f pa`äthgf frkbethef—, Ibsfrra``aBgae÷dhga, 93-99 (66): 6?2-362, 68;6.
Iuvbrkbr, Dfurhgb, @as pfrthias pa`äthgas. Dèxhga, IO: Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bga-e÷dhgf, 688? \6826T.
Mubk`he, Ymadfs y F`fe Obeef, Gadpfrfthvb Obibrf`hsd: F Wystbdfthg Hequhr y.Yaraeta, Crafivhbw ^rbss, 3>>?.
@hjpmfrt, Frbei, @fs ibdagrfghfs gaetbdparæebfs. Re bstuiha gadpfrfthva.Cfrgb`aef, Frhb`, 6886.
@hez, Jufe, ‐Ibdagrfghf: ^rbshibeghf`hsda a ^fr`fdbetfrhsda. ±Mfgb f`kuefihobrbeghf1—, be A. Kaiay Frgfyf (Bi.). Mfghf uef ibdagrfghf daibref. @fapgh÷e pfr`fdbetfrhf. Wfethfka, Rehvbrshifi Gft÷`hgf ib Gmh`b, 688>.
Dfhewfrhek, Wgatt y Dfttmbw Wmukfrt, ‐J.J. @hez: ^rbshibeghf`hsda y Ibdagrf-ghf. Ref rbvhsh÷e gräthgf—. Ibsfrra``a Bgae÷dhga, 79 (672): 78;-97?, 6889.
Dab, Ybrry, ‐@f tbaräf pashthvf ib `f curagrfghf púc`hgf—. Be Gfr`as Fguöf(Gadp.) @bgturfs sacrb b` Bstfia y `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: rbtadfeia b` ib-
cftb ib fybr pfrf oar tf`bgbr b` fgtuf`, Cubeas Fhrbs, Jbofturf ib Kfchebtb ibDhehstras, 3>>=.
Duegl, Kbrfria @. y Shgmfri Weyibr, ^fsshae, Grfot fei Dbtmai he Gadpfrfthvb^a`hthgs. Cf`thdarb, James Maplhes Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>9.
Ehslfebe, [h`` hfd F., Curbfugrfgy fei Sbprbsbetfthvb Kavbredbet, EubvfXarl, F`iheb Ftmbrtae, 68;6.
Shlbr, [h``hfd, ‐Obibrf`hsd—, be O. Krbbestbhe y E. ^a`scy (bis.) Mfeicaal ao^a`hthgf` Wghbegb, Sbfihek, Fiihsae-[bs`by, 68;2.
Wfrtarh, Khavfeeh, ^frthbs fei ^frty Wystbds. F orfdbwarl oar Fef`yshs, EbwXarl, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 68;?.
Wfrtarh, Khavfeeh, Hekbehbräf Gaesthtughaef` Gadpfrfif. Wbkueif ^frtb: ^rbsh-ibeghf`hsda y ^fr`fdbetfrhsda, Dèxhga, IO: Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf,6889.
Wgmfgtsgmebhibr, B.B. ,Ymb sbdhsavbrbhke pbap`b, Ebw Xarl, Ma`t, Shebmfrt fei[hestae, 68?>.
Wgmdhttbr, ^mh`hppb, ‐±Gaetheúf b` shk`a ib` garparfthvhsda1—, be S. Agfdpa F`-gæetfrf (Gadp.). Ybaräf ib` Ebagarparfthvhsda. Besfyas ib ^mh`hppb Wgmdht-tbr, Kufif`fjfrf, Rehvbrshifi ib Kufif`fjfrf, 6883.
Ysbcb`hs, Kbarkb, ‐@f tadf ib ibghshaebs be `as shstbdfs pa`äthgas. Fgtarbs ibvbta be b` prbshibeghf`hsda, pfr`fdbetfr hsda, du`thgfdbrf`hsda y du`thpfr-thihsda—, be Gfr`as Fguöf (Gadp.) @bgturfs sacrb b` Bstfia y `fs pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs: rbtadfeia b` ibcftb ib fybr pfrf oar tf`bgbr b` fgtuf`, Cubeas Fhrbs,Jbofturf ib Kfchebtb ib Dhehstras, 3>>=.
Zb`fzehl, Jfvhbr, ‐Kachbrea—, be Ju`ha ^heta (Gadp.) Hetraiuggh÷e f `f Ghbeghf
^a`äthgf, Cubeas Fhrbs, Buibcf.
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GF^ÄYR@A HHH. @fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: b` ibsfrra``a ib ue gfdpa
ihsghp`hefr
6. Hetraiuggh÷e. 3. @fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: be cusgf ib uef ibehgh÷e gae-gbptuf`. 3.6. ^a`äthgf: ue gaegbpta gae dú`thp`bs shkehgfias. 3.3. ±Vuè bs
uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf1 Be cusgf ib uef ibehgh÷e. 3.7. ^a`äthgf púc`hgf, paibr
y rèkhdbe pa`äthga. 3.7.6. Ea ibghsh÷e, paibr y pa`äthgf púc`hgf. 3.9. ^a`äthgf púc`hgf y Bstfia. 7. @f gaestruggh÷e y bva`ugh÷e ib ue gfdpa ihsghp`hefr:`fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. 7.6 Gaeaghdhbeta ib y gaeaghdhbeta be b`
pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf. 9. Feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs y tadf ib ibghsh÷e. 9.6. @as pfrfihkdfs ib feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs. 9.3. @as daib`as ib gaeiugtf
ib` fef`hstf ib pa`äthgfs. 2. G÷da bstuihfr y què bstuihfr ib `fs pa`äthgfspúc`hgfs. ?. Be rbsudbe.
6. HEYSAIRGGH×E.
Be b` prhdbr gfpätu`a sb mfe prbsbetfia f`kuefs eaghaebs cæshgfs pfrf b` feæ`hshs pa-
`äthga. @as gaegbptas ib paibr , Bstfia, `bkhthdhifi , shstbdf pa`äthga y rèkhdbe pa`ä-thga gaesthtuybe she iuif gftbkaräfs gaegbptuf`bs gbetrf`bs6 qub pbrdhtbe gadprbe-
ibr g÷da bstæ arkfehzfia y ihstrhcuhia b` paibr pa`äthga be uef saghbifi (Dar`hea,
68=2). Ihgmfs gftbkaräfs, she bdcfrka, aorbgbe hdækbebs bstæthgfs, ‐oatakrfoäfs—,
qub sh chbe sae bxtrbdfifdbetb úth`bs pfrf ebs tb÷rhga-fef`äthgas, ibsgrhpthvas y
gadpfrfthvas (par bjbdp`a, hibethgfr `fs ihdbeshaebs qub gadprbeib y ibebe
f ue Bstfia, shstbdf pa`äthga a rèkhdbe pa`äthga, ibsgrhchr `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs qub
pasbbe bstas be ibtbrdhefia thbdpa y `ukfr, y rfstrbfr `fs ihobrbeghfs prbsbetbs
betrb ihsthetas gfsas fef`hzfias), ea gaetrhcuybe f bxp`hgfr b` pragbsa f trfvès ib`
6 Bs hdpartfetb fivbrthr qub f garrbgtf fp`hgfgh÷e ib bstfs gftbkaräfs ea ibpbeib bxg`ushvfdbetb ib`f gfpfghifi ib ib`hdhtfr y ibehr gae prbghsh÷e `as f`gfegbs tb÷rhgas y bdpärhgas ib gfif gaegbpta.
Bxhkb fibdæs ibsgucrhr `as väegu`as b hetbribpbeibeghfs qub bxhstbe betrb `as ihsthetas gaegbptas prbsbetfias be b` prhdbr gfpätu`a. Be f`kueas gfsas bsas väegu`as bstæe bxp`äghtfdbetb p`fetbfias be`fs ibehghaebs gaegbptuf`bs ‗par bjbdp`a, `f rb`fgh÷e betrb b` gaegbpta ib shstbdf pa`äthga y b` ib
rèkhdbe pa`äthga (Dar`hea, 68=2), betrb `as gaegbptas ib paibr, Bstfia y bkhthdhifi ([bcbr, 6883), abetrb shstbdf pa`äthga y `bkhthdhifi (@hpsbt, 68;;)‗< pbra be atras gfsas sb rbquhbrb ib ghbrtf pbrhghf pfrf paibr bstfc`bgbr `fs gaebxhaebs tb÷rhgfs fibgufifs.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
29
guf` bsfs gfrfgtbrästhgfs a ihdbeshaebs qub ibebe f gfif uea ib bsas gaegbptas
fiquhbrbe eubvas vf`arbs.
Be b` sbkueia gfpätu`a `f ftbegh÷e sb gbetrf be `as rbkädbebs pa`äthgas ibdagræ-
thgas (a rbkädbebs pa`hærquhgas, tf` gada `as ibeb Ifm` (688;)3, hetraiughbeia be
b` feæ`hshs f`kueas fspbgtas hesthtughaef`bs dæs bspbgägas (par bjbdp`a, b` ibcftb
prbshibeghf`hsda vbrsus pfr`fdbetfrhsda a `f ihsgush÷e sacrb `fs oardfs ib rbprb-
sbetfgh÷e pa`äthgf y rbprbsbetfgh÷e ib hetbrbsbs saghf`bs y bgae÷dhgas) qub pbrdhtbe
gadprbeibr ihsthetfs oardfs ib arkfehzfgh÷e, pfrthghpfgh÷e y ihstrhcugh÷e ib` paibr
pa`äthga be gaetbxtas ibdagræthgas. Bspbgägfdbetb, sb prbtbeib dastrfr g÷da `as
ihsthetas betrfdfias hesthtughaef`bs qub pubibe fiaptfr `fs pa`hfrquäfs da`ibfe a
bstrugturfe b` pragbsa ib tadf ib ibghshaebs, bstfc`bghbeia quhèebs ‗y guæetas‗
pubibe pfrthghpfr a heuhr, guæ`bs sae `as gfef`bs oardf`bs/heoardf`bs ib fggbsa aheubeghf, què ofgu`tfibs/paibrbs thbeb gfif uea ib b``as, què rbquhshtas (dfyaräfs)
sb ibcbe sfthsofgbr pfrf paibr fiaptfr ibghshaebs, btg. Whe bdcfrka, dæs f``æ ib `f
uth`hifi tb÷rhga-fef`äthgf, ibsgrhpthvf y gadpfrfthvf ib bstfs eubvfs gftbkaräfs, ea
aorbgbe ue hestrudbetf` fibgufia pfrf bxp`hgfr g÷da y par què gfdchf f arkfehzf-
gh÷e y ihstrhcugh÷e ib` paibr pa`äthga be uef saghbifi, eh tfdpaga pfrf ifr gubetf
ib què mfgbe `as kachbreas y par què `a mfgbe.
Be bstb gfpätu`a sb hetbetfræ ‐gadp`btfr pfrghf`dbetb— bsb vfgäa7 hegarparfeia uef
eubvf gftbkaräf oueifdbetf` pfrf b` feæ`hshs pa`äthga: `fs pa äthgfs púc`hgfs. Bstfs rbsu`-tfe g`fvb parqub ife gubetf ib `a qub as kachbreas mfgbe a pubibe mfgbr 9, `as acjbthvas
3 Be su yf g`æshgf acrf @f ^a`hfrquäf (688;), Sacbrt Ifm` frkudbetf qub bs hdpartfetb dfetbebr `fihsthegh÷e betrb f ibdagrfghf gada shstbdf hibf` y as frrbk`as hesthtughaef`bs qub sb fgbrgfe hdpbrobg-tfdbetb f b``f. @fs rfzaebs bxpubstfs sae ias: f) f ibdagrfghf gada shstbdf hibf` gadprbeib ue eúdb-ra ib ihdbeshaebs qub trfsghbeib f fqub``fs qub gadúedbetb sb uth`hzfe pfrf ibehr f ue rèkhdbe gada
ibdagræthga< c) `f bvhibeghf bdpärhgf ibdubstrf qub ea bxhstb ehekúe rèkhdbe pa`äthga tatf`dbetb ib-dagrfthzfia. Bs par b``a qub prbbrb uth`hzfr b` gaegbpta ib pa`hfrquäf gada susthtuta ib f ibdagrfghf.
7 Ibghdas pfrghf`dbetb, parqub she iuif b` feæ`hshs ib `as pragbsas ib gfdcha (a heg`usa `f bxp`h-gfgh÷e ib `f supbrvhvbeghf ib` stftu qua, bsta bs b` ea gfdcha) rbquhbrb hegarparfr f `as fgtarbs, sushetbrbsbs, vf`arbs, hiba`akäfs, pbra tfdchèe sus bstrftbkhfs y rbgursas (bgae÷dhgas, arkfehzfghaef`bsb hesthtughaef`bs).
9 Sbsu`tf fquä hdpartfetb mfgbr uef fivbrtbeghf f` `bgtar. Wh chbe bsta sb ibsfrra``fræ gae dfyar prb-ghsh÷e be b` pr÷xhda gfpätu`a f` prbsbetfr b` daib`a sbgubeghf` a par btfpfs, bs prbghsa rbgaeagbr qub`fs fiapgh÷e ib uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf paeb ib dfehbsta ‗be b` dbjar ib as gfsas‗ `a qub as kachbreas
prbtbeibe mfgbr (bsta bs, `as acjbthvas qub pbrshkube), pbra `f ibghsh÷e ea eas fethghpf guæ`bs sae `asrbsu`tfias qub `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs praiugbe. B``a sb ibcb f qub be b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e
bs pashc`b qub `fs pa`äthgfs (acjbthvas y rbgursas) sb ‐ibsväbe— mfghf atras acjbthvas y/a pac`fghaebs cbebghfrhfs a ihrbgtfdbetb ea sb paekfe be bjbgugh÷e. Re trfcfja phaebra be bstb gfdpa mf shia she
iuif `f acrf ib [h`ifvsly y ^rbssdfe (68;7).
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
22
qub pbrshkube a ibsbfe f`gfezfr y `as rbgursas qub davh`hzfe pfrf b``a, quhbebs y par
què `fs rbspf`ife, `as hetbrbsbs bgae÷dhgas, saghf`bs y pa`äthgas qub fobgtfe (ofvarfc`b
a ibsofvarfc`bdbetb), `as gaehgtas ib hetbrbsbs qub bdbrkbe, fsä gada `as bobgtas qub
bstfs prbtbeibe praiughr a praiugbe sacrb b` gaetbxta be b` qub hetbrvhbebe.
Bs par b``a qub be bstb gfpätu`a sb prbsbetfe, be prhdbr `ukfr, f`kuefs ibehgha-ebs sacrb què bs uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf, p`fetbfeia uef sbrhb ib ihdbeshaebs ibsgrhp-
thvfs qub pfrbgbe sbr ihsthethvfs ib taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf b hibethgfeia ib oardf
crbvb `as puetas ib gaetfgta gae f`kueas ib `as gaegbptas trfcfjfias be `as gfpätu-
`as fetbrharbs. Wbkuhifdbetb, sb rbf`hzfræ ue shetèthga rbpfsa sacrb `f oardf be qub
sb gaesthtuy÷ b` ‐gfdpa— ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, fsä gada `f bva`ugh÷e qub ihgma
gfdpa mf bxpbrhdbetfia mfstf `f fgtuf`hifi. Be tbrgbr `ukfr, `f ftbegh÷e sb gbe-
trfræ be b` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs y su vhegu`fgh÷e gae, a gaetrhcugh÷e f, `as pragbsasib tadf ib ibghsh÷e. Ohef`dbetb, sb p`fetbfræe ihobrbetbs fcarifjbs dbtaia`÷khgas
pfrf fef`hzfr `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, trftfeia ib p`fetbfr f`kuefs rbspubstfs prb`hdh-
efrbs f `fs prbkuetfs sacrb què y g÷da bstuihfr `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
3. @FW ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW: REF IBOHEHGH×E GAEGB^YRF@
Be bstf sbggh÷e sb pragurf crheifr f`kueas b`bdbetas qub pbrdhtfe uef dbjar gad-
prbesh÷e ib què sae fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. @f tfrbf ea bs, par supubsta, sbegh``f. @fsihgu`tfibs sb dfehbstfe be trbs ædchtas. ^ar ue `fia, bs prbghsa ifr gubetf ib `f
pa`hsbdhf qub gfrfgtbrhzf f` gaegbpta pa`äthgf, trftfeia ib hibethgfr `as f`gfegbs
qub thbeb `f uth`hzfgh÷e ib ihgma gaegbpta be `f gaestruggh÷e pa`äthgf púc`hgf. ^ar
atra, rbsu`tf hdpartfetb rbgaeagbr qub ea bxhstb ue gaesbesa be b` gfdpa ib `fs
pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sacrb `fs ihdbeshaebs a gfrfgtbrästhgfs qub pbrdhtbe `f hibethgf-
gh÷e ib uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf. Fquä b` dfyar ibsfoäa khrf be tarea f `f ebgbshifi ib
pbesfr `f rb`fgh÷e betrb pa`äthgf púc`hgf, ibghsh÷e púc`hgf y ea-ibghsh÷e. ^ar ú`thda,
uef vbz prbghsfia b` gaegbpta y sus f`gfegbs, bs ebgbsfrha rbgupbrfr uef dhrfif he-
tbkrf` qub vub`vf f paebr be gaebxh÷e f fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs gae as atras gaegbptas
prbsbetfias be `as gfpätu`as prbgbibetbs.
3.6. ^a`äthgf: ue gaegbpta gae dú`thp`bs shkehgfias
Wh chbe be b` Gfpätu`a 6 yf sb mf hetraiughia `f ihsgush÷e sacrb b` gaegbpta pa`äthgf,
rbsu`tf rb`bvfetb rbtadfr fquä fqub` ibcftb pfrf rb`fghaefr `as gaegbptas ib pa`ä-
thgf y pa`äthgf púc`hgf. B` tèrdhea pa`äthgf bs uth`hzfia rbgurrbetbdbetb ‗tfeta be
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
2;
@f ihdbesh÷e dæs fdp`hf a bstrugturf` ib `f pa`äthgf bs `f qub rbbrb f` gae-
gbpta ib pa`hty. Bstf bs `f ihdbesh÷e hesthtughaef` ib `f pa`äthgf, betbeihif gada b`
gaejueta ib hesthtughaebs y rbk`fs qub bstfc`bgbe g÷da b` paibr bstæ arkfehzfia y
ihstrhcuhia y g÷da pubib sbr bjbrghia f` hetbrhar ib ue aribe pa`äthga. Bstf ihdbe-
sh÷e gadprbeib b` feæ`hshs ib` Bstfia, b` shstbdf pa`äthga y b` rèkhdbe pa`äthga yftrfcfjfifs be b` prhdbr gfpätu`a, pbra tfdchèe ib `fs ihsthetfs oardfs hesthtughaef`bs
qub pubife fiaptfr `as rbkädbebs pa`hærquhgas be tfeta bstfc`bgbe `fs rbk`fs qub rb-
ku`fe `f ihstrhcugh÷e ib` paibr y `fs oardfs be `fs qub sb pubibe fiaptfr ibghshaebs
`bkäthdfs.
@f sbkueif ihdbesh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf bs `f qub rbbrb f` gaegbpta ib pa`hthgs.
Bstb ehvb` bs b` qub mfchtuf`dbetb fsaghfdas (be bspbghf` be b` `bekufjb arihefrha)
f` gaegbpta ib pa`äthgf, pubsta qub bs bstf ihdbesh÷e `f qub rbbrb f `f iheædhgfhembrbetbdbetb gaehgthvf ib `f pa`äthgf. @f pa`hthgs sb vhegu`f bstrbgmfdbetb gae
obe÷dbeas gada `f `ugmf par b` paibr< `f bstrugturf ib` gaehgta pa`äthga y saghf`<
b` gadpartfdhbeta ib `as fgtarbs (pa`äthgas, bstftf`bs, bgae÷dhgas y saghf`bs), fsä
gada sus dfpfs gakehthvas (vf`arbs b hiba`akäfs), hetbrbsbs y prbobrbeghfs< `f davh-
`hzfgh÷e ib rbgursas (pa`äthgas, bgae÷dhgas y shdc÷`hgas)< y as pragbsas ib ebkaghf-
gh÷e y gaapbrfgh÷e qub sb paebe be dfrgmf gae b` prap÷shta ib rbpraiughr a f`tbrfr
ibtbrdhefifs shtufghaebs ib paibr.
Ohef`dbetb, f tbrgbrf ihdbesh÷e ib f pa`äthgf bs f qub rbbrb f `f pa`hgy (a pa`h-
ghbs). Bstf bs `f ihdbesh÷e ib f pa`äthgf qub sb vhegu`f gae fs fgghaebs a ibghshaebs
qub ue kachbrea fiaptf (pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs) y qub bstæe arhbetfifs f `f rbsa`ugh÷e ib
fqub``as prac`bdfs qub uef saghbifi y ue kachbrea ibebe gada púc`hgas (bsta bs,
qub dbrbgbe ftbegh÷e par pfrtb ib` kachbrea). Be bstb ehvb` b` hetbrès sb ihrhkb f `as
acjbthvas qub fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs pbrshkube, pbra tfdchèe f as rbsu`tfias b hdpfg-
tas qub `fs dhsdfs bobgthvfdbetb praiugbe be `f saghbifi, rbpraiughbeia shtufgha-
ebs prbxhstbetbs a f`tbræeia`fs rfihgf`dbetb. Bs par b``a qub gufeia `f ftbegh÷e sbgbetrf be `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sb vub`vb hdpartfetb fef`hzfr ea sa`a `f ihdbesh÷e
sustfethvf ib fs pa`äthgfs, sus gaetbehias, shea tfdchèe f ihdbesh÷e apbrfthvf, bsta
bs su hdp`bdbetfgh÷e.
3.3. ±Vuè bs uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf1 Be cusgf ib uef ibehgh÷e
Wae dugmfs `fs ibehghaebs qub pubibe ifrsb ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. Gfif uef ib
b``fs ibstfgf ihsthetas fspbgtas a b`bdbetas qub `f gadpaebe.Ref prhdbrf fpraxhdfgh÷e f` gaegbpta ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf bs fqub``f qub `f ib-
eb gada ‐b` rbsu`tfia ib `f fgthvhifi ib uef futarhifi hevbsthif ib paibr púc`hga y
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2=
ib bkhthdhifi kucbrefdbetf`— (Dbey y Ymabehk, 6883: =8). Bstf prhdbrf ibehgh÷e
rbsf`tf b` bspfgha hesthtughaef` (`fs bstrugturfs ib futarhifi) be b` guf` `f pa`äthgf
púc`hgf sb arhkhef, y `a qub `b crheif su `bkhthdhifi ib arhkbe. B` kachbrea, a fs fu-
tarhifibs qub trfeshtarhfdbetb agupfe `fs pashghaebs ib futarhifi be uef saghbifi,
y qub fggbibe f b``fs f trfvès ib `as dbgfehsdas hesthtughaef`dbetb bstfc`bghias(gaejueta ib rbk`fs), fpfrbgbe fquä gada b` fgtar ibghshva a ‐futar— ib `f pa`äthgf
be gubsth÷e. Wbkuhifdbetb `as dhsdas futarbs sböf`fe qub uef pa`äthgf ‐sb prbsbetf
cfja `f oardf ib ue gaejueta ib prægthgfs y eardfs qub bdfefe ib uea a vfrhas
fgtarbs púc`hgas— (6883: =8), rbgaeaghbeia fsä qub `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf pubib grhs-
tf`hzfrsb be eardfs (ib ihstheta ehvb`), pbra qub tfdchèe fcfrgf fqub``fs prægthgfs
(heoardf`bs) qub `fs paebe be oueghaefdhbeta.
Ref ibehgh÷e f`tbrefthvf bs `f qub eas crheif Iyb (6882) be su yf g`æshgf acrfReibrstfeihek ^uc`hg ^a`hgy. Wbkúe b` futar, ‐uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf bs taia `as qub
`as kachbreas ibghibe mfgbr a ea mfgbr— (6882:3). Gada sasthbeb bxp`äghtfdbetb b`
futar ‐e÷tbsb qub bstfdas oagf`hzfeia b` hetbrès ea sa`a be `fs fggh÷e ib` kachbrea
shea tfdchèe be `f hefggh÷e kucbrefdbetf`, bsta bs, be `a qub b` kachbrea b`hkb ea
mfgbr— (6882: 9). Gaesbgubetbdbetb sb fdp`äf beardbdbetb b` gfdpa ib fp`hgfgh÷e
ib` gaegbpta, pubsta qub bsta rbquhbrb tadfr be gubetf `a qub ue kachbrea hetbe-
ghaef`dbetb ea mfgb. Be bstb sbethia, `fs pa`äthgfs pubibe sbr b` praiugta ib gursas
ib fggh÷e fiaptfias she g`frf bxp`hghtfgh÷e ib sus oueifdbetas y arhbetfghaebs. @fihgu`tfi rbshib fquä par ghbrta be pracfr `f hetbeghaef`hifi ibtræs ib `f ea-fggh÷e,
bsta bs be kbebrfr bvhibeghfs qub ibdubstrbe qub `f eafggh÷e bs ue gursa ib fggh÷e
b`bkhia ib oardf gaesghbetb par `fs futarhifibs kucbrefdbetf`bs.
Ref tbrgbrf ibehgh÷e qub gadprbeib y supbrf f `fs fetbrharbs bs fqub``f qub
gaeghcb `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf gada ‐ue gaejueta ib fgghaebs y adhshaebs qub dfeh-
bstfe uef ibtbrdhefif daif`hifi ib hetbrvbegh÷e ib` Bstfia be rb`fgh÷e gae uef
gubsth÷e qub gaeghtf `f ftbegh÷e, hetbrès a davh`hzfgh÷e ib atras fgtarbs be `f saghb-ifi ghvh`— (Asz`fl y A‘Iaeeb``, 68=3: 663). Bstf ibehgh÷e rbgupbrf b` gadpaebetb
gaetravbrshf` ib `f ibehgh÷e ib Iyb (6882), f` heg`uhr `f adhsh÷e gada uef fggh÷e,
pbra bs dugma dæs fdp`hf par ias rfzaebs. ^ar ue `fia, rbgaeagb `f bxhstbeghf ib
ue gadpaebetb rb`fghaef` ibtræs ib taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf f` p`fetbfr qub `f pa`äthgf
bs uef ‐rbspubstf— f uef gubsth÷e qub mf kbebrfia `f ftbegh÷e a hetbrès ib ghbrtas
fgtarbs saghf`bs a bgae÷dhgas. Wb fsudb par tfeta qub `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf supaeb uef
ibdfeif, y qub ibtræs ib bsf ibdfeif bxhstbe fgtarbs b hetbrbsbs patbeghf`dbetb be
gaehgta. ^ar atra, paeb be b` gbetra ib `f ibehgh÷e f` Bstfia ‗ea sa`a f` kachbr -
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ea‗ be tfeta gaejueta ib hesthtughaebs púc`hgfs qub paebe be bjbgugh÷e f trfvès ib
ue gaejueta ib fgghaebs bsfs ibghshaebs, ibsp`fzfeia b` hetbrès ibsib b` dadbeta
ibghshaef` f` dadbeta ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
Ref ú`thdf fpraxhdfgh÷e bs fqub``f qub trftf ib frthgu`fr `as fspbgtas prbsbetbs
be `fs ibehghaebs fetbrharbs, ibehbeia f `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf gada: ‐ue gaejueta
(sbgubeghf, shstbdf, ghg`a) ib fgghaebs, bstrugturfifs be daia hetbeghaef` y gfu-
sf`, qub sb arhbetfe f rbf`hzfr acjbthvas gaeshibrfias ib vf`ar pfrf `f saghbifi a
f rbsa`vbr prac`bdfs guyf sa`ugh÷e bs gaeshibrfif ib hetbrès a cbebgha púc`hga<
guyf hetbeghaef`hifi y gfusf`hifi mfe shia ibehifs par `f hetbr`agugh÷e qub mf
tbehia ukfr betrb b` kachbrea y as sbgtarbs ib f ghuififeäf< qub mfe shia ibghihifs
par futarhifibs púc`hgfs `bkäthdfs< qub sae bjbgutfifs par fgtarbs kucbrefdbetf`bs
y bstftf`bs a par bstas be fsaghfgh÷e gae fgtarbs saghf`bs (bgae÷dhgas, ghvh`bs), yqub ife arhkbe a oardfe ue pftr÷e ib gadpartfdhbeta ib` kachbrea y `f saghbifi—
(Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, 3>>8: 69).
@f ibehgh÷e ib Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf paeb ib dfehbsta qub `f pa`äthgf supaeb
ue pragbsa gadp`bja qub sb hehghf f` hibethgfr uef gubsth÷e saghf` a pa`äthgfdbetb
rb`bvfetb, qub gaetheúf gae uef tadf ib pashgh÷e par pfrtb ib` kachbrea fetb ihgmf
gubsth÷e, y qub rbquhbrb ue gaejueta ib fgghaebs bstftf`bs ihrhkhifs f dfetbebr,
trfesoardfr a daihgfr `f rbf`hifi a b` gaetbxta be b` qub `as fgtarbs hetbrvhbebe
a `as praphas gadpartfdhbetas ib `as fgtarbs fobgtfias par `f pa`äthgf. ^bra `a qubbstf ibehgh÷e hegarparf bxp`äghtfdbetb, y pfrbgb bstfr fusbetb be `fs prhdbrfs ias
ibehghaebs, bs `f frdfgh÷e ib qub taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf hdp`hgf uef tbaräf gfusf`
rbspbgta f g÷da rbsa`vbr a dhthkfr b` prac`bdf qub f pa`äthgf vhbeb f ftbeibr. @f hd-
partfeghf ib b``a rbshib be qub paeb be prhdbr p`fea b` väegu`a betrb gaeaghdhbeta
y pa`äthgf a dæs bspbgägfdbetb f rb`fgh÷e betrb ghbeghf (a gaeaghdhbeta ghbetäga)
y pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
Whetbthzfeia f`kuefs ib `fs gubsthaebs fetbrhardbetb dbeghaefifs pubib fr -dfrsb, shkuhbeia f Dbey y Ymabehk (6883), qub uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf gaethbeb `fs
shkuhbetbs gfrfgtbrästhgfs:
h) Re gaetbehia: taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf davh`hzf rbgursas ib taia thpa pfrf
kbebrfr ghbrtas rbsu`tfias a praiugtas.
hh) Re prakrfdf: uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf ea sb rbiugb f ue fgta a ibghsh÷e gae-
shibrfia fhs`fifdbetb shea qub ibtræs ib gfif fgta bxhstb ue dfrga ib
rbobrbeghf qub hetbkrf y if gambrbeghf f bsas fgtas a fgthvhifibs.
hhh) Ref arhbetfgh÷e eardfthvf: `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf ea bs `f rbsu`tfetb ib rbs- pubstfs f`bftarhfs, gfrbetbs ib sbethia a ihrbgghaef`hifi, shea `f bxprbsh÷e
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ib `fs ef`hifibs (dfpfs gakehthvas b hiba`akäfs) y prbobrbeghfs qub b`/`as
ibghsar/bs ea pubibe ibjfr ib fsudhr.
vh) Re ofgtar ib gabrgh÷e: taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf pragbib ib uef futarhifi
kucbrefdbetf` bkäthdfdbetb hevbsthif, iatfif ib as rbgursas ib gabrgh÷e
ebgbsfrhas pfrf hdpaebr `fs ibghshaebs ib pa`äthgf fiaptfifs.v) Ref gadpbtbeghf saghf`: `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sb ihrhkbe mfghf ibtbrdhef-
ias krupas a pac`fghaebs, y cusgfe daihgfr sus gadpartfdhbetas, fobgtfr
sus hetbrbsbs a daihgfr `as gaetbxtas be `as guf`bs bstas sb ibsbevub`vbe.
Be uef ihrbggh÷e shdh`fr sb dfehbstf Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf (688?) f` rbgaeagbr
qub taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf sb ibeb par `f prbsbeghf ib:
h) Re gadpaebetb ib futarhifi (hesthtughaef`): pubsta qub `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf
gaesthtuyb ue fgta ib futarhifi fiaptfia par uef futarhifi qub ihspaebib `f `bkhthdhifi y qub sb fjustf f taias `as pragbihdhbetas bstfc`bghias
`bkf`dbetb.
hh) Re gadpaebetb ibghshaef`: be tfeta taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf hdp`hgf `f prb-
sbeghf ib uef ibghsh÷e (fggh÷e a hefggh÷e).
hhh) Re gadpaebetb gaeiugtuf`: ifia qub taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf ibsbegfibef
ue gaejueta ib fgghaebs, fgthvhifibs y gadpartfdhbetas ib dú`thp`bs fgta-
rbs, ea ebgbsfrhf a bxg`ushvfdbetb kucbrefdbetf`bs.
hv) Re gadpaebetb gfusf`: be `f dbihif qub taif pa`äthgf cusgf praiughribtbrdhefias rbsu`tfias a bobgtas sacrb `as gadpartfdhbetas ib ghbrtas
fgtarbs a krupas saghf`bs a sacrb `as gaetbxtas a shtufghaebs be `f qub ibs-
p`hbkfe sus fgghaebs `as ghuififeas.
Ohef`dbetb, be `f dhsdf `äebf sb bxprbsf Dfrtäebz Eakubhrf (6882) f` sböf`fr
qub par pa`äthgf púc`hgf pubib betbeibrsb ue:
h) Gfdpa ib fggh÷e: ue fspbgta ib `f rbf`hifi qub hetbetf sbr hdpfgtfia par
`f fgthvhifi bstftf` (pa`äthgf saghf`, pa`äthgf bxtbrhar, pa`äthgf ib heeavfgh÷e,btg.). F su vbz, f ue ehvb` dæs ibsfkrbkfia, bstb gfdpa ib fggh÷e pubib
gaeshibrfrsb gada ue gaejueta ib prac`bdfs f guyf rbsa`ugh÷e sb arhbetf f
fggh÷e ib` bstfia f trfvès ib hestrudbetas y fgghaebs bspbgägfs.
hh) Ibg`frftarhf ib hetbegh÷e: gaejueta ib pradbsfs y gadpradhsas ib fg-
gh÷e. Wb rbbrb f gaeiugtfs ib`hcbrfifs pfrf b` `akra ib acjbthvas, `f ib-
ehgh÷e ib `hebfdhbetas pfrf `f fggh÷e, `f rbku`fgh÷e ib gadpartfdhbetas,
`f fshkefgh÷e ib rbgursas y `f ibtbrdhefgh÷e ib rbspaesfch`hifibs. Bstfs
pradbsfs thbebe su bxprbsh÷e dftbrhf` be `f beueghfgh÷e ib `as gaetbehiasib `f pa`äthgf.
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hhh) ^ragbsa ib gaevbrsh÷e: uef davh`hzfgh÷e ib rbgursas (ib ihobrbetb thpa:
ib paibr, ib gaeaghdhbeta, hesthtughaef`bs y arkfehzfghaef`bs, ib `bkhth-
dhifi saghf`, shdc÷`hgas) pfrf b` `akra ib acjbthvas pa`äthgas. @fs gfpfgh-
ifibs bxhstbetbs, su efturf`bzf, iatfgh÷e, ftrhcutas, rb`fghaebs rbgäpragfs,
gadpfthch`hifi y gaevbrkbeghf ibtbrdhefræe b` krfia be qub `f pradbsf sbgaevhbrtf be rbsu`tfias b hdpfgtas bobgthvas.
hv) Ghg`a ib fggh÷e: fgthvhifibs ib oardu`fgh÷e, bjbgugh÷e, sbkuhdhbeta y
bvf`ufgh÷e, gfif uef ib `fs guf`bs supaeb `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib fgghaebs ihob-
rbeghfifs pbra f `f vbz frthgu`fifs, qub gadprbeib fibdæs `fs hetbrvbegha-
ebs ib dú`thp`bs fgtarbs gada fkbeghfs gae gadpbtbeghf pa`äthgf a tègehgf
a gada pfrthghpfetbs gae ihstheta krfia ib rbspaesfch`hifi, heva`ugrf-
dhbeta a gaetheuhifi.v) Gaejueta ib praiugtas, rbsu`tfias b hdpfgtas: gaesbgubeghf ib` pragbsa
ib gaevbrsh÷e be b` dfrga ib bsb ghg`a ib fggh÷e qub pbrdhtbe ftrhcuhr sbe-
thia y gaesbgubeghfs f `f hetbeghaef`hifi ib` Kachbrea y b` Bstfia.
Ib bstb daia, `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ea sae sa`a `f bxprbsh÷e ib uef hetbeghaef`h-
ifi ihrhkhif f rbsa`vbr f`kúe prac`bdf hegarparfia f `f fkbeif ib kachbrea. Wupa-
ebe tfdchèe ibehghaebs ib bstas prac`bdfs, pastu`fgh÷e ib rb`fghaebs gfusf`bs be
tarea f b``as, `hebfdhbetas y grhtbrhas pfrf arhbetfr ibghshaebs y fgghaebs, dfeiftas
y ftrhcughaebs ib gadpbtbeghfs y rbgursas f ihsthetfs arkfehzfghaebs púc`hgfs (b`Bstfia), fsä gada fs gaesbgubeghfs bobgthvfs (rbsu`tfias b hdpfgtas) qub praiugbe.
3.7. ^a`äthgf púc`hgf, paibr y shstbdf pa`äthga
Gae b` prap÷shta ib vhegu`fr f`kueas ib `as gaegbptas mfstf fquä trfcfjfias, gaesh-
ibra apartuea rbgupbrfr ib dfebrf bxp`äghtf b` väegu`a betrb `as gaegbptas ib pa`ä-
thgf púc`hgf, paibr , y shstbdf pa`äthga. Bxhstbe vfrhfs oardfs ib paebr ib dfehbsta
bstb väegu`a.@f prhdbrf bs rbgaeagbr qub `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs hdp`hgfe, a sae `f rbsu`tfetb
ib, gaehgtas betrb fgtarbs saghf`bs, bgae÷dhgas y pa`äthgas qub sb dfehbstfe f`
hetbrhar ib` shstbdf pa`äthga. Wbkúe bstf gaegbpgh÷e `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs thbebe uef
dftrhz saghbtf`, pubsta qub bstfs ‐rbspubstfs— qub crheif b` shstbdf pa`äthga f bsfs
ibdfeifs (prbobrbeghfs) gaehgthvfs betrb sä sae b` rbbja ib `fs `ugmfs ib paibr
qub f` hetbrhar ib` shstbdf pa`äthga betfc`fe bstas fgtarbs f pfrthr ib `f fshdètrhgf
pashgh÷e qub bstas pasbbe y `f ibshkuf` ihstrhcugh÷e ib rbgursas qub pubibe davh-`hzfr pfrf vbr rbf`hzfifs a sfthsobgmfs sus praphfs prbobrbeghfs. (Wb rbgadhbeif fquä
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rbgupbrfr `fs gaegbpghaebs ib` paibr qub pravhbebe ib `as beoaqubs p`urf`hstfs y
dfrxhstfs qub mfe shia trftfifs be b` Gfpätu`a 6).
Gada sasthbeb Wlagpa` (68=8) bstfs ‐oardfs ib bxp`hgfr `f pa`äthgf y `fs fgthvh-
ifibs kucbrefdbetf`bs gbetrfifs be `f saghbifi brfe gfrfgtbrästhgfs sacrb taia ib
`fs pbrspbgthvfs p`urf`hstfs y bstrugturf`-oueghaef`hstfs prbiadhefetbs be `f ghbeghf
pa`äthgf y `f sagha`akäf ib Bstfias Rehias be `fs iègfifs ib` 2> y ib` ?>. Be bs-tfs pbrspbgthvfs, b` Bstfia brf gaeshibrfia gada ue gaegbpta fethkua, fsaghfia f
tbihasas bstuihas juräihga-oueghaef`hstfs ib prheghphas gaesthtughaef`bs ib ædchta
efghaef`. \…T B` ‐kachbrea— brf gaeshibrfia prhdarihf`dbetb gada ue tbrrbea be
b` qub `as krupas ib hetbrès ib gfrægtbr bgae÷dhga a `as davhdhbetas saghf`bs ear-
dfthvas gaetbeiäfe a sb f`hfcfe betrb sä pfrf gaekurfr `f fiapgh÷e ib ibghshaebs
sacrb pa`äthgf púc`hgf. Wb betbeiäf qub bsfs ibghshaebs brfe rbpfrtas ib cbebghas
betrb `as krupas qub `as rbg`fdfcfe. \…T B` prapha kachbrea ea brf tadfia duy be
sbrha gada fgtar heibpbeihbetb \…T— (68=8: ;?-;;).F pbsfr qub f`kuefs hevbsthkfghaebs rbf`hzfifs be b` dfrga ib `as beoaqubs p`u-
rf`hstfs pfrbgäfe rbsu`tfr pradbtbiarfs (Ifm`, 68?6< ^a`scy, 68?7), bstfs ea gaeiu-
jbrae ‗f pbsfr ib `f bvhibeghf bdpärhgf ihspaehc`b‗ f `f rboardu`fgh÷e a fcfeiaea
ib ghbrtas supubstas p`urf`hstfs. Bstas y atras futarbs shtufias be bstb beoaqub sh-
kuhbrae fobrræeiasb f `f hibf ib qub b` Kachbrea a b` Bstfia ea gaesthtuybe fgtarbs
partfiarbs ib prbobrbeghfs praphfs shea qub rbbjfe f trfvès ib sus ibghshaebs y
fgghaebs quhbebs sae as krupas ib hetbrès qub mfe akrfia hdpaebr sus prbobrbeghfs(be pf`fcrfs ib Ifm`, quhbe a quhbebs kachbref/e).
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Bstf dftrhz saghbtf` tfdchèe pubib rfstrbfrsb be futarbs ebadfrxhstfs qub gaegh-
cbe `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs gada dbra rbbja ib f ibshkuf` ihstrhcugh÷e ib paibr betrb
`fs g`fsbs saghf`bs (Dh`hcfei, 68;=). F ihobrbeghf ib `as p`urf`hstfs, qub thbebe uef vh-
sh÷e dæs iheædhgf y uhif ib` paibr, as beoaqubs dfrxhstfs thbeibe f rbsf`tfr b` gad-
paebetb bstrugturf` ib` gaehgta ib g`fsbs gada b` ofgtar qub bxp`hgf `f `ugmf par b`
paibr, y g÷da bstb ofgtar bstrugturf` sb grhstf`hzf be fs pa`äthgfs púc hgfs fiaptfifs.
Gada sasthbeb Wlagpa` (68=8) ‐F ehvb` tb÷rhga, prægthgfdbetb taias `as ebadfrxhstfs
qub mfe bsgrhta sacrb b` Bstfia mfe dfetbehia ueas supubstas, praoueifdbetb frrfh-
kfias, gbetrfias be `f saghbifi, `a guf` ea `bs mf pbrdhthia iuifr ib qub, be `f cfsb,
`as Bstfias bstæe gaekurfias heträesbgfdbetb par `fs g`fsbs a `fs `ugmfs ib g`fsbs y
shrvbe pfrf dfetbebr y fdp`hfr `as daias ib praiuggh÷e— (68=8: ;8)
Ref oardf f`tbrefthvf pfrf gadprbeibr b` väegu`a betrb `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs yb` paibr, qub ibsfoäf `f pbrspbgthvf mfstf bsb dadbeta iadhefetb be b` gfdpa ib
`f ghbeghf pa`äthgf, rbsu`tf ib `f hevbrsh÷e ib `f rb`fgh÷e pastu`fif par p`urf`hstfs y
dfrxhstfs. Ibsib bstf pbrspbgthvf, qub mf shia sasthgfifdbetb ibsfrra``fif par
@awh (68?9, 68;3), `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sae gaegbchifs gada ofgtarbs qub bxp`hgfe
(y ea bxp`hgfias par) `f bstrugturfgh÷e ib ihsthetfs frbefs ib paibr.
Be su yf gfe÷ehgf g`fshgfgh÷e @awh (68?9) rbgaeagb trbs g`fsbs ib pa`äthgfs: f)
pa`äthgfs ihstrhcuthvfs, c) pa`äthgfs rbku`ftarhfs, y g) pa`äthgfs rbihstrhcuthvfs. Gfif
uef ib b``fs kbebrf uef frbef ib paibr gae gfrfgtbrästhgfs sheku`frbs. @fs pa`äthgfsihstrhcuthvfs kbebrfe uef frbef rb`fthvfdbetb pfgägf, pubs sb trftf ib f trfvès ib
b``fs ib aorbgbr f f saghbifi rbgursas a chbebs púc`hgas ea rhvf`bs qub sae ihvhshc`bs.
Be gfdcha, fs pa`äthgfs rbku`ftarhfs kbebrfe frbefs ib gaehgta y ebkaghfgh÷e betrb
krupas ib hetbrès qub thbebe hetbrbsbs a prbobrbeghfs ihsthetfs, gaehgthvfs betrb sä,
be tarea f uef dhsdf gubsth÷e y qub sb vbe ac`hkfias f ibsp`bkfr sus rbgursas (pa-
ibr) pfrf `akrfr qub sus prbobrbeghfs sbfe chbe ftbeihifs par `fs pa`äthgfs. Gae tf`
prap÷shta sb vbe ac`hkfias f rbf`hzfr gaegbshaebs y oardfr gaf`hghaebs. ^ar ú`thda,`fs pa`äthgfs rbihstrhcuthvfs sae fqub``fs qub gaesthtuybe frbefs ib paibr oraetf`-
dbetb gaehgthvfs, fivbrsfrhf`bs, iaeib `f bstrftbkhf ib gaf`hgh÷e y ebkaghfgh÷e ea
bstæ ihspaehc`b pubs `as hetbrbsbs sae hrrbgaegh`hfc`bs.
Föas dæs tfrib @awh (68;3) rbvhs÷ su g`fshgfgh÷e, prbstfeia dfyar ftbegh÷e f`
mbgma qub `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs thbebe `f gfrfgtbrästhgf ib sbr ga`bgthvfdbetb ac`h-
kftarhfs b hdp`hgfe f`kúe ehvb` ib gabrgh÷e. Bs cfsæeiasb be `f efturf`bzf ib `f
gabrgh÷e qub uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf hetraiugb qub b` futar gaestruyb su thpa`akäf. Bstf
gabrgh÷e sb ibsp`hbkf be ias ihdbeshaebs: f) uef ihdbesh÷e vbrthgf`, qub ibeatf su
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hetbeshifi a oubrzf, sbkúe `f guf` `f gabrgh÷e qub `f pa`äthgf kbebrf pubib sbr ih-
rbgtf (hedbihftf) a heihrbgtf (rbdatf)< c) uef ihdbesh÷e marhzaetf`, qub ihobrbeghf
fqub``as gfsas be `as qub `f gabrgh÷e sb bjbrgb sacrb b` gadpartfdhbeta heihvhiuf` a
sacrb b` gaetbxta be b` guf` `f gaeiugtf heihvhiuf` sb ibsp`hbkf.
Ihdbesh÷e _brthgf`
Ihdbesh÷e Marhzaetf`
@f gabrgh÷e sb bjbrgb f ehvb` ib `fgaeiugtf heihvhiuf`
@f gabrgh÷e sb bjbrgb sacrbb` betarea ib `f gaeiugtf
@f gabrgh÷e bs rbdatf ^a`äthgfs ihstrhcuthvfs ^a`äthgfs gaesthtughaef`bs
@f gabrgh÷e bs hedbihftf ^a`äthgfs rbku`ftarhfs ^a`äthgfs rbihstrhcuthvfs
Oubetb: B`fcarfgh÷e praphf be cfsb f @awh (68;3).
F pfrthr ib fdcfs ihdbeshaebs b` futar rbgaeagb guftra thpas ib pa`äthgfs. @fs
pa`äthgfs ihstrhcuthvfs sae fqub``fs be `fs qub `f pracfch`hifi ib `f gabrgh÷e bs rb-
datf pbra sb bjbrgb f ehvb` heihvhiuf`. Bstfs pa`äthgfs rbbrbe f fqub``as fgtas db-
ihfetb `as guf`bs sb gaegbib uef futarhzfgh÷e (cbebghas) f gfsas pfrthgu`frbs. @fs
pa`äthgfs rbku`ftarhfs, be gfdcha, sae fqub``fs be `fs qub `f gabrgh÷e sb bjbrgb sacrb
b` heihvhiua (hkuf` qub `fs ihstrhcuthvfs) pbra iaeib `f pracfch`hifi ib `f gabrgh÷e
bs hedbihftf a ihrbgtf. Bstb thpa ib pa`äthgfs gaeshstbe be ihgtfr eardfs (rbk`fdbe-
tfghaebs) qub fobgtfe ihrbgtfdbetb b` gadpartfdhbeta ib `as fobgtfias par `f rb-
ku`fgh÷e. @fs pa`äthgfs rbihstrhcuthvfs, par su pfrtb, sae fqub``fs be `fs qub `f pra-
cfch`hifi ib `f gabrgh÷e bs hedbihftf (f` hkuf` qub `fs rbku`ftarhfs) pbra iaeib `f
gabrgh÷e sb bjbrgb sacrb b` betarea ib` gadpartfdhbeta heihvhiuf`. Ohef`dbetb, `fs
pa`äthgfs gaesthtughaef`bs (tfdchèe ``fdfifs gaesthtuybetbs) sae fqub``fs be iaeib
`f gabrgh÷e sb bjbrgb sacrb b` betarea ib `f gaeiugtf (f` hkuf` qub `fs rbihstrhcuthvfs)
fuequb `f pracfch`hifi ib `f gabrgh÷e bs rbdatf a `bjfef.Gfif uea ib `as thpas ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf qub sb rbgaeagb be `f thpa`akäf (pa`äth-
gfs ihstrhcuthvfs, rbku`fthvfs, rbihstrhcuthvfs y gaesthtughaef`bs) ibtbrdhefe b` thpa
b hetbeshifi ib` gaehgta, b` ædchta hesthtughaef` be b` qub sb ibsfrra``f fsä gada
b` eúdbra y thpa ib fgtarbs (jukfiarbs) qub pfrthghpfe be gfif uef ib bsfs frbefs.
Ihgma ib atra daia, y rbtadfia `f ihsthegh÷e rbf`hzfif be b` pueta 3.6., pfrf b`
futar `f pa`hthgs ea ibtbrdhef a bxp`hgf `fs pa`hghbs (supubsta be b` qub ibsgfesfe
beoaqubs gada b` p`urf`hsda a b` ebadfrxhsda) shea qub `fs ‐ pa`hghbs ibtbrdhefe
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`f pa`hthgs— (@awh, 68;3: 388)2. B` bsqubdf frkudbetf` qub ibsfrra``f b` futar pfrf
sastbebr bstf rb`fgh÷e ib ibtbrdhefgh÷e bs b` shkuhbetb:
h) `fs rb`fghaebs betrb `fs pbrsaefs y as krupas a fgtarbs bstæe ibtbrdhefifs
par sus bxpbgtfthvfs, bsta bs `a qub gfif fgtar bspbrf actbebr ib su rb`fgh÷e
gae `as atras<hh) `fs bxpbgtfthvfs bstæe ibtbrdhefifs par `as praiugtas kucbrefdbetf`bs
(pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs)<
hhh) gaesbgubetbdbetb, `f rb`fgh÷e pa`äthgf ( pa`hthgs) bstæ ibtbrdhefif par b`
thpa ib pa`äthgf be jubka ‗rbihstrhcuthvf, ihstrhcuthvf, rbku`fthvf, a gaes-
thtughaef`‗, pubsta qub gfif thpa ib pa`äthgf kbebrf ue thpa bspbgäga ib
rb`fgh÷e pa`äthgf.
Ref tbrgbrf oardf ib rbpbesfr b` väegu`a bs fqub``f qub rbgaeagb qub `fs pa`äth-gfs bstæe gaeihghaefifs par pbra f` dhsda thbdpa heuybe sacrb `f ihdbesh÷e ib
`f pa`hthgs, pbra qub beofthzf b` ofgtar gabrghthva gada uea ib `as rfskas ihsthethvas
ib taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf. Bstf gaegbpgh÷e pfrtb ib `f mbrbeghf hetb`bgtuf` ib @awh
(68;3), quhbe sastbeäf qub gfif thpa ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf hdp`hgf ihsthetas thpas ib
gabrgh÷e, qub apbrfe f su vbz f trfvès ib ihvbrsas ehvb`bs (heihvhiuf` a fdchbetf`).
Ibsib bstf pbrspbgthvf `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sae be sä dhsda hestrudbetas pfrf b`
bjbrghgha bobgthva ib` paibr, gae heibpbeibeghf ib `f ihrbgghaef`hifi a `f hetbegha-
ef`hifi gae `f qub ihgma paibr sb bjbrgb.
3.7.6. Ea ibghsh÷e, paibr y pa`äthgf púc`hgf
F prheghpha ib `f iègfif ib` ?>, `f prbsthkhasf rbvhstf ghbetägf Ymb Fdbrhgfe ^a-
`hthgf` Wghbegb Sbvhbw puc`hgf ue frtägu`a ib Cfgmrfgm y Cfrftz (68?3) qub ibsfoäf
`fs vhshaebs p`urf`hstfs ib` paibr. B` frtägu`a thtu`fia Ywa Ofgbs ao ^awbr (@fs ias
gfrfs ib` paibr) sasthbeb qub `f gaegbpgh÷e p`urf`hstf ib` paibr bs bxtrbdfifdbetb
rbiugghaehstf pubsta qub rbgaeagb sa`a uef ib `fs ihdbeshaebs ib` paibr. Wbkúe `as
futarbs, b` p`urf`hsda sb fobrrf f `f hibf ib qub b` bjbrghgha ib` paibr sb dfehbstf
gufeia ue fgtar a gaejueta ib fgtarbs `akrfe heuhr be b` gadpartfdhbeta ib atras
fgtarbs pfrf qub bstas mfkfe f`ka qub ib atrf dfebrf ea mfräfe. Wh chbe bsta su-
2 Bstf ‐vhsh÷e ibtbrdhehstf ib f pa`äthgf ( pa`äthgs) gada ouegh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ( pa`hghbs)
mf shia praoueifdbetb grhthgfif par gaeshibrærsb`f ibdfshfia shdp`hstf y saspbgmasf ibsib b` puetaib vhstf dbtaia`÷khga— (^frsaes, 3>>=: 6?7). ^frf ue trftfdhbeta ibtf``fia ib `fs gräthgfs f `f pbrs- pbgthvf ib @awh sb rbgadhbeif gaesu`tfr `as tbxtas ib Mbg`a (68;3), Dfy (68=?) y Wfcfthbr (6886).
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paeb paibr, `as futarbs frdfe qub bxhstb uef oardf f`tbrefthvf a gadp`bdbetfrhf
‗qub heg`usa gaeshibrfe dæs bghbetb‗ qub gaeshstb be bjbrgbr b` paibr heuybeia
be b` gadpartfdhbeta ib atras fgtarbs pfrf qub bstas ea mfkfe f`ka.
±^ar què bs hdpartfetb bstf eubvf ihdbesh÷e a gfrf ib` paibr1 @a qub as futarbs
ibsbfe paebr ib dfehbsta bs qub b` paibr sb pubib bjbrgbr bvhtfeia ue gadpartf-dhbeta, `a qub hdp`hgf par tfeta qub ea bdbrkbræ ue gaehgta acsbrvfc`b. Be bstfs
shtufghaebs b` paibr sb vf f ibsp`bkfr gae b` prap÷shta ib hdpbihr sb kbebrb uef
ibdfeif qub hekrbsb f` shstbdf pa`äthga. @a qub sb cusgf f trfvès ib bstf oardf ib
bjbrghgha ib` paibr bs rbdavbr `f gfpfghifi ib fggh÷e ga`bgthvf ib ghbrtas krupas a
pac`fghaebs. ^bra b` mbgma ib qub ea mfyf uef davh`hzfgh÷e / fggh÷e ga`bgthvf ea
shkehgf qub paifdas heobrhr qub ea mfy prac`bdf(s). @as prac`bdfs bstæe, pbra sae
tf` gada `a ibebe `as futarbs, prac`bdfs patbeghf`bs. Wae prac`bdfs qub bxhstbe pbra qub ea mfe fiquhrhia b` stftus ib prac`bdfs pa`äthgas.
@a qub bstb eubva beoaqub chihdbeshaef` prapaeb, shkuhbeia `f tbrdhea`akäf ib
@ulbs (68=2), bs tbebr be gubetf `as gaehgtas qub puihbrae mfcbr surkhia pbra ea
surkhbrae. Yhbeb par tfeta uef vhsh÷e dæs fdp`hf ib` shstbdf pa`äthga pubs heg`uyb f
pashch`hifi ib ebutrf`hzfr gaehgtas fetbs ib qub agurrfe.
Cfgmrfgm y Cfrftz (68?3) hibethgfe be su tbxta ihsthetas dbgfehsdas qub sub`be
sbr uth`hzfias gae `f ef`hifi ib bvhtfr qub ue gadpartfdhbeta gaehgthva ‐farb
f `f supbrghb—, bs ibghr, pfrf `akrfr qub ue fgtar ea sb gadpartb ib uef oardf ea
ibsbfif. Bstas dbgfehsdas sae:
h) @f gabrgh÷e: hdp`hgf tbebr `f gfpfghifi ib fdbefzfr f` atra fgtar gae uef
sfegh÷e. B` atra fgtar thbeb f pashch`hifi ib bvf`ufr sh prbbrb acbibgbr a ea.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
?;
hh) @f heubeghf: supaeb `f gfpfghifi ib bvhtfr b` gadpartfdhbeta ib ue fgtar
she `f ebgbshifi ib uef fdbefzf shea gaevbeghèeia`a ib ea ``bvfr`a f gfca.
hhh) @f futarhifi: hdp`hgf `f prbsbeghf ib `f acbihbeghf par pfrtb ib` fgtar
sacrb b` qub sb bjbrgb b` paibr, quhbe rbgaeagb qub `f aribe qub rbghcb bs
rfzaefc`b.hv) @f oubrzf: thbeib f ibspajfr f` atra fgtar ib `f apgh÷e ib acbihbeghf a ea
acbihbeghf.
Bstb eubva beoaqub supaeb fdp`hfr b` gfdpa ib `a qub gaesthtuyb uef pa`äthgf
púc`hgf. Ib bstb daia `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf ea bs sa`a `f rbspubstf qub bdbrkb ib `fs
bstrugturfs hesthtughaef`bs ib futarhifi fetb ibtbrdhefias prac`bdfs a ibdfeifs
qub hekrbsfe f` shstbdf pa`äthga, shea qub fcfrgfräf `fs ibghshaebs qub sb fiaptfe
gae b` prap÷shta ib ‐ibghihr ea ibghihr—, bsta bs, hdphihbeia qub ghbrtas prac`bdfs yibdfeifs hekrbsbe f` shstbdf.
3.9. ^a`äthgf púc`hgf y Bstfia
Be b` dfrga ib `fs pashghaebs iadhefetbs be b` gfdpa ib `fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs
mfstf `f iègfif ib `as ;>, `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sae gaegbchifs gada rbsu`tfetbs ib`
gaehgta saghf`, fuequb `f bstrugturf ib bsb gaehgta vfrhfræ be ouegh÷e f `fs tbaräfs
ib `fs guf`bs sb pfrtb (vbr pueta 3.7.). Bstas beoaqubs saghagèetrhgas hibethgfraefsä gada oubetb bxp`hgfthvf ib `fs pa`äthgfs f fgtarbs bxtrf bstftf`bs gada `fs g`fsbs
saghf`bs, as gfphtf`hstfs y b` gfphtf`, as krupas ib hetbrès y fs gaf`hghaebs saghapa`ä-
thgfs, rb`bkfeia f` Bstfia f uef shtufgh÷e ib dbra bphobe÷dbea ib bstas bvbetas. Ib
bstb daia, b ebkfrae f` Bstfia gfpfghifi bxp`hgfthvf praphf, shbeia bstb gaegbchia
gada ue gaejueta ib arkfehzfghaebs púc`hgfs heva`ugrfifs be `f bjbgugh÷e fgräthgf
ib fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs y be f`kúe sbethia gada ue bspfgha a frbef ebutrf be b` guf`
sb bxprbsf a ihrhdb `f gaehgthvhifi saghf`.
Whe bdcfrka, f pfrthr ib `f iègfif ib` ;>, sb ibsfrra``fe f`kuefs hevbsthkfghaebsqub pfrtbe ib atrfs prbdhsfs fef`äthgfs, rbsgftfeia `f hdpartfeghf ib` Bstfia gada
ofgtar bxp`hgfthva. F dbihfias ib `f iègfif ib` =>, Bvfes, Subsgmbdbybr y Wlagpa`
(68=2) puc`hgfe uef acrf, Crhekhek tmb Wtftb Cfgl He, qub gubsthaef tfeta ibsib b`
pueta ib vhstf tb÷rhga gada bdpärhga dugma ib `as supubstas qub bstfcfe ibtræs ib
`as beoaqubs saghagèetrhgas. Be bsf acrf, pbra tfdchèe be ue frtägu`a qub sb puc`h-
gfræ guftra föas ibspuès be bspföa`, Ymbif Wlagpa` (68=268=8) sb prapaeb dastrfr
`f heubeghf bstftf` be atrfs vfrhfc`bs fef`äthgfs. Wbkúe `f futarf, `f heubeghf ib`Bstfia be `f saghbifi sb pubib fef`hzfr f pfrthr ib ias pbrspbgthvfs:
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
?=
h) b` Bstfia be tfeta fgtar gfpfz ib heuhr be `f iheædhgf ib `as pragbsas
saghf`bs f trfvès ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs<
hh) b` Bstfia be tfeta dfrga hesthtughaef`, bs ibghr, be tfeta shstbdf ib rbk`fs
ib arkfehzfgh÷e ib `f vhif pa`äthgf y saghf`.
Gaeshibrfr f` Bstfia gada fgtar bs gaeshibrfr`a gada ue ga`bgthva ib oueghaef-rhas. Bstb ga`bgthva pubib (fuequb ea shbdprb) fgtufr ib uef dfebrf fut÷eadf be b`
sbethia ib tbebr `f ofgu`tfi y `f pashch`hifi pfrf ibsfrra``fr pa`äthgfs she rbspaeibr
ebgbsfrhf y ihrbgtfdbetb f `as hetbrbsbs ib `as fgtarbs saghf`bs heva`ugrfias, sbfe
krupas a g`fsbs saghf`bs (Wlagpa`, 68=8). Wh chbe gaeshibrfr`a gada fgtar ea hdp`hgf
ebgbsfrhfdbetb `f gfpfghifi pfrf ibsp`bkfr ue gadpartfdhbeta fut÷eada, bs bstf
pashc`b futaeadäf `f qub `b atarkf f` Bstfia `f guf`hifi ib sbr uef hesthtugh÷e/arkf-
ehzfgh÷e gae gfpfghifi ib heghibeghf saghf`.^bra `f futarf vf dæs f``æ f` sböf`fr qub bstas ga`bgthvas ib oueghaefrhas ea sb
gadpartfe shbdprb eh ebgbsfrhfdbetb ib oardf daea`äthgf, `a qub `f ``bvf f sastb-
ebr qub gaesthtuyb ue krfvb brrar fsudhr qub b` Bstfia sb gadpartf gada ue fgtar
uehtfrha. ^ar b` gaetrfrha, b` Bstfia bs ue fgtar qub sb ibsfkrbkf be uef p`urf`hifi
ib fgtarbs, qub pubibe begaetrfrsb dæs a dbeas gaarihefias betrb sä, gfif uea ib
b``as gae ihsthetfs iatfghaebs ib rbgursas (ib taia thpa) y gae acjbthvas ihobrbetbs a
heg`usa gaetrfihgtarhas, y qub thbebe `f gfpfghifi pfrf ibsp`bkfr bsas be ouegh÷e f
sus praphas hetbrbsbs y prbobrbeghfs.Gaeshibrfr b` Bstfia gada dfrga hesthtughaef`, supaeb sbkúe Wlagpa` (68=2)
bvf`ufr b` hdpfgta qub bstb pubib tbebr be tfeta shstbdf ib rbk`fs, pragbihdhbetas
a bstrugturfs. Be bstb sbethia `f futarf rbsf`tf qub `fs ihsthetfs gaekurfghaebs hes-
thtughaef`bs qub fsudbe `as Bstfias thbebe uef heubeghf ibghshvf sacrb `f oardf
gada sb ibsfrra``f `f iheædhgf pa`äthgf a `fs daif`hifibs ib fggh÷e ga`bgthvf ib `as
fgtarbs saghf`bs. Ib bstb daia, f ihobrbetbs oardfs ib arkfehzfgh÷e ib` Bstfia `b
garrbspaeibe ihobrbetbs oardfs ib mfgbr pa`äthgf, a ihobrbetbs bstrftbkhfs pa`äthgfs aib fggh÷e ga`bgthvf ib `as fgtarbs saghf`bs.
Ib `a bxpubsta sb fivhbrtb qub bstas eubvas beoaqubs qub ‐paebe f` Bstfia be
prhdbr p`fea—, hdp`hgfe uef eubvf oardf ib gaegbptuf`hzfr `f rb`fgh÷e betrb Bstfia
y pa`äthgf púc`hgf. B` Bstfia bs gaeshibrfia fmarf gada ue pashc`b fgtar gae gfpfgh-
ifi pfrf hdpaebr sus hetbrbsbs f `as ihsthetas fgtarbs y krupas saghf`bs.
Be bstb sbethia bstf rbgupbrfgh÷e ib` Bstfia supaeb bsgfpfr, par ue `fia, f `f
hibf ib qub `as pragbsas ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs sae bstrhgtfdbetb tègeh-
gas y ebutrf`bs ([bcbr, 6883), y beofthzfr b` gadpaebetb pa`äthga qub gfrfgtbrhzf `f
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
?8
bjbgugh÷e ib guf`quhbr pa`äthgf púc`hgf ([`ifvsly, 68;8). Be bstb pragbsa pa`äthga
betrfe she iuif b` Bstfia, a `fs arkfehzfghaebs bstftf`bs, gada fgtarbs gae hetbrbsbs
praphas. ^ar atra, supaeb rbgaeagbr qub b` Bstfia, a `as ga`bgthvas ib oueghaefrhas
púc`hgas, ea sa`a hetbrvhbebe be b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e shea qub pfrthghpfe,
be f`kuefs shtufghaebs, be `as pragbsas ib tadf ib ibghshaebs?.
7. @F GAEWYSRGGH×E X B_A@RGH×E IB RE GFD^A IHWGH^@HEFS : @FW GHBEGHFW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
Be ue trfcfja yf g`æshga puc`hgfia be b` föa 6826, Mfra`i @fsswb`` ‗b` pfirb oueif-
iar ib `fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs‗ ibsfrra``f ue prakrfdf ib hevbsthkfgh÷e qub cusgf
frthgu`fr ib oardf shstbdæthgf f ghbeghf (a b` gaeaghdhbeta ghbetäga) gae b` pragbsa
ib tadf ib ibghshaebs. F juhgha ib @fsswb`` (6826) b` pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf rbquhbrb
ib dæs y dbjarbs bstuihas qub gaetrhcuyfe f fudbetfr `f rfghaef`hifi ib `fs ibgh-
shaebs púc`hgfs.
B` prakrfdf ibsfrra``fia par @fsswb`` sb gaesthtuy÷ be uef rbspubstf f `f bxgb-
shvf orfkdbetfgh÷e qub gfrfgtbrhzfcf f `fs ghbeghfs saghf`bs eartbfdbrhgfef, par ue
`fia, y f `f ebgbshifi ib iatfr ib dfyar gaeaghdhbeta f `as kachbreas pfrf qub pub-
ife fiaptfr dbjarbs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. @f pfrfiajf qub gfrfgtbrhzfcf f` bsgbefrha
be b` qub sb hesgrhcb su praybgta ib fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs, rbshiäf be b` prbiadhehaib paibrasfs ‐oubrzfs gbeträoukfs— f` hetbrhar ib `fs ghbeghfs saghf`bs ‗ib `f dfea
ib ue pragbsa vbrthkheasa ib bspbghf`hzfgh÷e ghbetägf qub gaetrhcuäf f hegrbdbetfr
`f heihobrbeghf y pagf vhegu`fgh÷e betrb `as ihvbrsas sfcbrbs ghbetägas‗ justa be b`
dhsda dadbeta be b` qub f pa`äthgf (a as kachbreas) rbqubräfe dæs gaeaghdhbeta y
uef dfyar hetbkrfgh÷e ib `as sfcbrbs ghbetägas pfrf paibr beorbetfr ib oardf dæs
bgfz y bghbetb prac`bdfs púc`hgas gfif vbz dæs gadp`bjas y du`thihdbeshaef`bs.
Be pf`fcrfs ib @fsswb`` ‐@f uehifi ib `f vhif hetb`bgtuf` y `f frdaehzfgh÷e betrb
`f ghbeghf y `f prægthgf mfe shia dhefifs par bstfs ”oubrzfs gbeträoukfs‘— (6826: 9).
Whe bdcfrka, be `as föas pastbrharbs f` e ib `f Wbkueif Kubrrf Dueihf` ga -
dhbezfe f vhs`udcrfrsb f`kueas heihgfiarbs fusphghasas, qub dubstrfe uef grbghbe-
tb tbeibeghf mfghf `f hetbkrfgh÷e. Be b` ærbf ib hevbsthkfgh÷e ib `fs uehvbrshifibs
gadhbezfe f gaeoardfrsb bquhpas du`thihsghp`hefrhas pfrf trfcfjfr sacrb prac`bdfs
? Bstfs gubsthaebs sb rbtadfræe be b` gfpätu`a shkuhbetb f` gfrfgtbrhzfr `fs ihsthetfs ofsbs a btfpfsib` ghg`a ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
;6
hh) @f uth`hzfgh÷e ib daib`as: sb sasthbeb qub `as ghbetägas saghf`bs shbdprb
mfe ibrhvfia sus mhp÷tbshs dæs úth`bs f pfrthr ib` ibsfrra``a ib daib`as qub
pbrdhtfe trftfr gae shtufghaebs a prac`bdfs bxtrbdfifdbetb gadp`bjas.
hhh) B` bsg`frbghdhbeta ib dbtfs (rb`fgh÷e dbihas-ebs): sb bxhkb qub `as pra-
p÷shtas vf`arfthvas sucyfgbetbs f taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf sbfe bxp`hghtfias.Bstfs vf`arfghaebs ibpbeibe ib a qub sb gaeshibrf gada rb`fghaebs mudf-
efs ibsbfc`bs, y ib b``fs ibpbeib f su vbz `a qub uef saghbifi ibeb gada
ue prac`bdf cæshga.
hv) Ref arhbetfgh÷e eardfthvf chbe ibehif: sb paeb b` èeofshs be b` ibsf-
rra``a ib ue gaeaghdhbeta qub pbrdhtf `f rbf`hzfgh÷e p`bef ib `f ihkehifi
mudfef. Be bstb sbethia, fs ghbeghfs ib fs pa`äthgfs thbebe uef prbobrbeghf
eardfthvf par `f ibdagrfghf.v) @f gaeghbeghf ib` thbdpa: sb bxhkb qub b` ghbetäga saghf` sb`bgghaeb `as
praybgtas ib hevbsthkfgh÷e ib fgubria gae sus dbtfs vf`arfthvfs (fqub``as
praybgtas qub ‐vf`be `f pbef—), pbra qub uef vbz rbf`hzfif bstf b`bggh÷e
pragbif gae `f dfyar acjbthvhifi, uth`hzfeia `as dètaias ihspaehc`bs, gae
b` prap÷shta ib gaetrhcuhr f `f ibghsh÷e ib pa`äthgfs.
vh) Re beoaqub k`acf`: sb fsudb qub `as prac`bdfs thbebe uef dftrhz k`acf`
y qub f pac`fgh÷e ib` dueia gaesthtuyb uef úehgf gaduehifi be f qub fs
ibghshaebs a ibsthea ib ueas fobgtfe f atras.vhh) Ref fgthtui ib sbeshch`hifi fetb `as prac`bdfs: sb `b atarkf ue `ukfr gbe-
trf` f` fgta ib hdfkhefgh÷e grbfthvf pfrf prapaebr sa`ughaebs (pa`äthgfs)
eubvfs y bxhtasfs f `as prac`bdfs.
vhhh) @f rbvf`arhzfgh÷e ib` ra` ib `as b`fcarfiarbs ib pa`äthgfs: sb fsudb qub
`as ghbetägas saghf`bs ea sae `as úehgas qub pubibe gaetrhcuhr f `fs ghbe -
ghfs ib fs pa`äthgfs, shea qub as madcrbs bxpbrhdbetfias be f b`fcarfgh÷e
ib pa`äthgfs pubibe mfgbr gaetrhcughaebs hdpartfetbs f pfrthr ib` gaeagh-dhbeta qub pubib arhkhefrsb y shstbdfthzfrsb ib sus praphfs bxpbrhbeghfs.
7.6. Gaeaghdhbeta ib y gaeaghdhbeta be b` pragbsa ib `fpa`äthgf
Gfsh vbhetb föas ibspuès ib prbsbetfr su prakrfdf ib `fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs, @fs-
swb`` rbtad÷ y pbrobgghae÷ su prapubstf arhkhef`. Wbkúe b` futar, `fs ghbeghfs ib
pa`äthgfs sb agupfe ib` gaeaghdhbeta ib` y be b` pragbsa ib tadf ib ibghshaebs(@fsswb``, 68;>). Bstas ias dfrgas ib rbobrbeghf sae g`frfdbetb ihsthekuhc`bs, pbra
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
;9
be tarea f b``fs ibsbegfibefias y par b``fs praiughias. Bsf gadprbesh÷e sb f`gfezf
f trfvès ib `f praiuggh÷e y `f uth`hzfgh÷e ib gaeaghdhbeta rb`bvfetb be tarea f gubs-
thaebs qub sae acjbta ib ftbegh÷e y fggh÷e par pfrtb ib` Bstfia. Bstb gaeaghdhbeta
pubib tbebr ihstheta krfia ib oardf`hzfgh÷e, ibsib b` juhgha heoardfia mfstf `f uth`h-
zfgh÷e ib dbtaia`akäfs rhkurasfs y shstbdæthgfs y b` frkudbeta rfghaef`.
Wae dú`thp`bs `fs ibehghaebs ififs f` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs. F`kuefs ib b``fs
sae `fs shkuhbetbs:(h) Fsbsarfdhbeta rb`bvfetb pfrf fs ibghshaebs púc`hgfs cfsfia be vf`arbs y
ihrhkhia f ue usufrha bspbgäga ([bhdbr y _hehek, 68=8).
(hh) Ref ihsghp`hef cfsfif be `fs ghbeghfs saghf`bs qub uth`hzf dú`thp`bs
dètaias ib heifkfgh÷e y ib frkudbetfgh÷e pfrf praiughr y trfesoardfrheoardfgh÷e rb`bvfetb rbobrhif f pa`äthgfs qub pubib sbr uth`hzfif beædchtas pa`äthgas pfrf rbsa`vbr prac`bdfs vhegu`fias f pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs(Iuee, 68=6).
(hhh) Re dbiha pfrf shetbthzfr heoardfgh÷e, heg`uhif be b``f `as rbsu`tfias ibhevbsthkfghaebs, ihrhkhia f sudhehstrfr b`bdbetas pfrf `fs ibghshaebssacrb pa`äthgfs (`f hibethgfgh÷e ib f`tbrefthvfs) y pfrf `f ibtbrdhefgh÷eib ebgbshifibs outurfs ib heoardfgh÷e ([h``hfds, 68=3)
(hv) Re sucgfdpa fp`hgfia guya gaetbehia ea pubib sbr ibtbrdhefia par`ädhtbs ihsghp`hefrhas shea par fqub``a qub fpfrbzgf gada fpraphfia f `fefturf`bzf y f `fs ghrguestfeghfs ib` prac`bdf ([h`ifvsly, 68;8).
(v) Guf`quhbr thpa ib feæ`hshs qub kbebrf y prbsbetf heoardfgh÷e ihrhkhif fdbjarfr fs cfsbs pfrf b` bjbrghgha ib su juhgha par pfrtb ib as oardu`fiarbsib pa`äthgf (Vufib, 68;2).
±^ar què b` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs1 ±Guæ` bs su rb`bvfeghf pfrf qub mfyf rbghchia
uef ftbegh÷e grbghbetb, mfchèeiasb gaesthtuhia f `f vbz be ue gfdpa du`thihsghp`h-
efrha gae hibethifi praphf y be uef prægthgf praobshaef` ihoueihif1 ±^ar què sb mf
gaevbrthia gada uef fgthvhifi shstbdæthgf be `as hetbetas sbrhas ib rboardf ib` bs-
tfia1 ±^ar què bstæ fsaghfia f `f pfrthghpfgh÷e saghf` y f uef ghuififeäf fgthvf1 @fs
rbspubstfs f bstas hetbrrakfetbs pubibe begaetrfrsb be `fs gaetrhcughaebs rbf`hzfifs
par b` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs f trbs p`feas ib `f rbf`hifi:
h) f` pragbsa ibdagræthga, crheifeia fpartbs qub h`udhefe `f ib`hcbrfgh÷e
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
;2
pa`äthgf y ife trfespfrbeghf f `as pragbsas be tarea f ibghshaebs púc`hgfs<
hh) f` pragbsa saghf`, pubs kbebrf gaeaghdhbetas sacrb `fs prac`bdæthgfs qub
ibdfeife `f ftbegh÷e púc`hgf, pbrdhthbeia uef dæs g`frf hibethgfgh÷e ib
hetbrbsbs, ebgbshifibs, pbrspbgthvfs y fsphrfghaebs, fsä gada `f bxprbsh÷e
ib vf`arbs<hhh) f `as pragbsas arkfehzfghaef`bs, f trfvès ib b`bdbetas pfrf b` dbjarf-
dhbeta ib `f gf`hifi ib `fs ibghshaebs, pfrf `f prakrfdfgh÷e y pfrf b` oar-
tf`bghdhbeta ib `f kbsth÷e.
F su vbz, paebr b` oaga ib` feæ`hshs be `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs bs gaesbgubeghf ib
ifr dfyar gaegrbgh÷e f tbdfs tf`bs gada `f rb`fgh÷e betrb b` bstfia y `f saghbifi, a
`fs gfpfghifibs pa`äthgfs y ib kbsth÷e ib` bstfia. F` gaeshibrfr fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs,
yf sb beueghf `f du`thp`hghifi ib b``fs y `f ihvbrshifi ib `as pragbsas qub sb ife begfif gfdpa f` qub `fs pa`äthgfs sb ihrhkbe. @f rb`fgh÷e betrb b` bstfia y `f saghbifi,
fsä gada `fs gfpfghifibs bstftf`bs, ihbrbe sbkúe b` bsgbefrha pa`äthga y saghf` ib
gfif pa`äthgf (`as fgtarbs heva`ugrfias, `f ihstrhcugh÷e ib rbgursas betrb b``as, `f gf-
pfghifi ib davh`hzfgh÷e ib bsas rbgursas, `as ftrhcutas ib `as fpfrftas gadpbtbetbs
be `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e, `fs bstrftbkhfs ib gaetra` a gaaptfgh÷e ib bsas fpfrftas, btg.).
Bs uef bstrftbkhf tb÷rhgf pfrf fvfezfr be `f gadprbesh÷e ib `as pragbsas pa`äthgas
y ib` Bstfia, pbra gaeshibrfeia p`feas gaegrbtas y ib`hdhtfias ib `f fggh÷e saghf`,
betbeihbeia qub b``as ihbrbe ‗fue gufeia f pfrthr ib uef `÷khgf supbrhar qub pubif
ihsgbrehrsb‗ y qub, par `a tfeta, rbquhbrbe fpraxhdfghaebs dæs gbrgfefs y shtufifs.
9.6. @as pfrfihkdfs ib feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs
B` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs prbsbetf uef eatfc`b ihvbrshifi ib pashch`hifibs be gufe-
ta f ef`hifi, rhkurashifi, ibstheftfrhas ib sus rbsu`tfias, ædchtas ib rbf`hzfgh÷e,
btg. @f fdp`htui ib `f ibeatfgh÷e ib` tèrdhea ‐feæ`hshs—, fsä gada bstfs ihobrbetbs
pbrspbgthvfs, mfgbe qub sbf prbghsa fvfezfr be `f ihobrbeghfgh÷e ib ‐pfrfihkdfs—f pfrthr ib `as guf`bs sb rbf`hzfe fgthvhifibs ib bstb thpa. [bhdbr y _hehek (68=8)
prbsbetfe ue gufira qub bxpaeb `fs prheghpf`bs shdh`htuibs y ihobrbeghfs ib bstas
pfrfihkdfs be tèrdheas ib `as acjbthvas cusgfias, `f arhbetfgh÷e mfghf b` ibstheftf-
rha ib as rbsu`tfias, b` bsth`a prbiadhefetb, f ihdbesh÷e tbdparf` y fs ibch`hifibs
cæshgfs.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
;?
^frfihkdfs Acjbthvaprheghpf`
G`hbetb Bsth`a gadúe Sbstrhgghaebstbdparf`bs
Ibch`hifibs
Hevbsthkfgh÷efgfièdhgf
Gaestruggh÷eib tbaräfs pfrf`f gadprbesh÷eib `as pragbsassaghf`bs.
‐_brifi—gada bsibehif par
`f ihsghp`hefs.Ga`bkfs.
Dbtaia`akäfrhkurasf pfrfgaestruhry vbrhgfr
tbaräfs. Sbtra-spbgthva.
^rbshaebsbxtbrefs pagaorbgubetbs.
Gae orbgubeghf,heoardfgh÷e hrrb`-bvfetb pfrf `f tadfib ibghshaebs.
Hevbsthkfgh÷eib pa`äthgfs
^rbihggh÷eib hdpfgtasib gfdchasbe vfrhfc`bsrb`bvfetbs
praiughias par`f fgthvhifi
púc`hgf.
Fgtarbs be `ffrbef pa`äthgf.Atrfs ihsghp-`hefs.
Fp`hgfghaebsib dbt-
aia`akäfsoardf`bs fgubsthaebsrb`bvfetbs ib
pa`äthgf. ^rb-ihggh÷e ib `fsgaesbgubeghfs.
Orbgubetbs prbshaebs par p`fzas, fvbgbs dai-brfifs par `frbgurrbeghfib `fs gubs-thaebs.
Ihgu`tfi be trf-iughr `as mf``fzkasbe hesudas pfrf `ftadf ib ibghshaebs.
^`febfdhbe-ta g`æshga
Ibehgh÷e y
`akra ib bs-tfias outurasibsbfc`bs pfrfarhbetfr `f fg-gh÷e púc`hgf.
B` ‐hetbrès púc`hga—tf` gada bsibehia par
`f praobsh÷e.
Sbk`fs yeardfs bstf-
c`bghifs par`f praobsh÷e.Bspbghgfgh÷e
ib acjbthvas ydbtfs.
Bsgfsf prb-sh÷e tbdparf`
par `f arhbet-fgh÷e f` `frka
p`fza.
Hrrb`bvfeghf ib `as p`febs gufeia easb gaeshibrfe `as
pragbsas pa`äthgas.
Fidhe-hstrfgh÷epúc`hgf
trfihghaef`
Bjbgugh÷ebghbetb ib
prakrfdfstf` gada saeibehias pa`äth-gfdbetb.
B` prakrfdf.Kbrbeghf` y`bkf`.
Ibghshaebs ibruthef. Ghg`as
prbsupubs-tfrhas.
Ea gaeshibrfgh÷eib fspbgtas bxtbr-eas f` prakrfdf.
^brhaihsda
Oagf`hzfr`f ftbegh÷e
púc`hgf be
prac`bdfs.
^úc`hgakbebrf`.
Ibsgrhpthva.Ftbegh÷egayueturf` fgubsthaebs.
Gfrbeghf ib pra-oueihifi fef`äthgf.
Feæ`hshs ibpa`äthgfs
Fef`hzfr, prbsbetfr ybvf`ufr f`tbr-efthvfs pfrf `frbsa`ugh÷e ib
prac`bdfs.
Re ibghsarheihvhiuf` aga`bgthva.
Wäetbshs ibhevbsthkfgh÷ey tbaräf pfrfbsthdfr fsgaesbgubeghfsib pa`äthgfs.
Ybrdhefgh÷eib` feæ`hshsvhegu`fifs f`as thbdpasib` ghg`a ib
pa`äthgfs.
Dhapäf praiughif par `f arhbetfgh÷emfghf b` g`hbetby par `f prbsh÷etbdparf`.
Oubetb: [bhdbr y _hehek (68=8: 9)
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
;;
9.3. @as daib`as ib gaeiugtf ib` fef`hstf ib pa`äthgfs
B` pfpb` praobshaef` ib` fef`hstf ib pa`äthgfs ea bstæ g`frfdbetb oardf`hzfia. Wu ibs-
bdpböa sb rhkb par ihsthetfs gaegbpghaebs, gfif uef ib fs guf`bs supaeb ue daib`a
ib gaeiugtf ihobrbeghfia y if `ukfr f ihsthetfs tbeshaebs y gaehgtas ib thpa apbrf-ghaef` y èthga qub ibcbe sbr gaeshibrfias. Bsas daib`as, ib dfebrf bsth`hzfif, sae:
Daib`as ib ra` ib` fef`hstf ib pa`äthgfs
_F@ASBW OREIFDBEYF@BW
Hetbkrhifi fef`äthgf Sbspaesfch`hifi mfghf`as g`hbetbs
Gaeshstbeghf gae rb-spbgta f `as vf`arbspbrsaef`bs
Fef`äthga ibsgrhp-thva
B` feæ`hshs bs ‐acjbthva—:mfc`f par sä dhsda. B` oaga
prhdfrha bs `f prbihggh÷e ibgaesbgubeghfs.
@as g`hbetbs sae sas-
pbgmfias. Ibsbetbe-ihdhbeta gae rbspbgta f`as hdpfgtas pa`äthgas.Dfethbeb ihstfeghf gae`as g`hbetbs. ^rbbrb
apbrfr gae g`hbetbs hesth-tughaef`bs.
Wb hibethgfe `as vf-`arbs rb`bvfetbs, pbra subvf`ufgh÷e bs ibjfif f`as g`hbetbs.
_f`arfthva gadpra-dbthia
B` feæ`hshs praiugb gaeg`u-shaebs ibehthvfs sa`a bx-gbpghaef`dbetb. Fpravbgmf
pfrf pradavbr `as hetbrbsbs
ib sus g`hbetbs.
@as g`hbetbs pravbbe`bkhthdhifi. Bxhstb uefgaetrfprbstfgh÷e: bf`tfif gfdcha ib fggbsa f`
pragbsas pa`äthga.
Wb`bgghaef f `as g`h-betbs qub gadpfrtbesus vf`arbs. Bstfc`bgbrb`fghaebs ib `frka p`fza
gae b``as.
_f`arfthva gräthga
B` feæ`hshs praiugb gae-g`ushaebs ibehthvfs sa`a
bxgbpghaef`dbetb. Fpravb-gmf `f fdchkðbifi pfrf be-ofthzfr `as vf`arbs fusbetbsy pfrf ih`uhr sus rbsu`tfiasgufeia b` feæ`hshs ea fpayfsus vf`arbs.
@as g`hbetbs ife `f apar-tuehifi pfrf fvfezfrvf`arbs. Wb rb`fghaef gaeb``as gae apartuehsda.^rbtbeib uth`hzfr`as pfrf
pradavbr sus pbrspbg-thvfs.
B` feæ`hshs bs ue hestru-dbeta pfrf `f pradagh÷eib `as praphas vf`arbs.
Oubetb: [bhdbr y _hehek (68=8: 6=)
2. G×DA BWYRIHFS X VRÈ BWYRIHFS IB @FW ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
Vuhbebs sb ibihgfe f bstuihfr fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sb vbe f ihfrha ac`hkfias f tadfr
ue gaejueta ib ibghshaebs qub tbeiræe gaesbgubeghfs sacrb `fs gaeg`ushaebs qub sb
pubibe bxtrfbr f pfrthr ib `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib hevbsthkfghaebs ghbetägfs. Be bstf sbg-
gh÷e sb prbsbetfe ib oardf bsqubdæthgf f` dbeas guftra thpas ib ibghshaebs, pfrf
ibsfrra``fr gae ibtbehdhbeta sa`a uef ib b``fs.
Be prhdbr `ukfr, bstæe fqub``fs ibghshaebs qub sb shtúfe be b` ehvb` ib as supubs-
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
;=
tas bphstbda`÷khgas y qub rbbrbe f `f rb`fgh÷e qub sb bstfc`bgb betrb b` ghbetäga y
b` ‐acjbta— (be eubstra gfsa `fs pa`äthgfs). Fquä `fs prbkuetfs qub ibcb rbspaeibr b`
ghbetäga sae: ±Bs pashc`b bstfc`bgbr uef ihstfeghf betrb b` ghbetäga y b` acjbta a as
fgtarbs bstuihfias1 ±A bs `f praphf hetbrfggh÷e betrb b` ghbetäga y b` ‐acjbta—, a be-
trb b` ‐acjbta— (`fs pa`äthgfs) y `as cbebghfrhas, `f qub ibcb oardfr pfrtb ib` prapha
pragbsa ib hevbsthkfgh÷e1 @fs rbspubstfs qub sb ibe f bstfs prbkuetfs bedfrgfræe `f
hevbsthkfgh÷e ibetra ib ue pfrfihkdf pashthvhstf (be gfsa ib rbspaeibr frdfthvf-
dbetb `f prhdbrf prbkuetf) a pasbdphrhstf (be gfsa ib rbspaeibr frdfthvfdbetb `f
sbkueif). Vuhbebs hesgrhcfe su hevbsthkfgh÷e be ue pfrfihkdf pashthvhstf tbeibræe
f cusgfr, a paebr f prubcf, rb`fghaebs ib gfusf`hifi (bxp`hgfgh÷e)< dhbetrfs qub `as
pasbdphrhstfs rbeueghfræe f `as prap÷shtas bxp`hgfthvas y tbeibræe f praoueihzfr b`
bstuiha ib` acjbta, ibstfgfeia su sheku`frhifi, f `as ebs ib gadprbeibr b` obe÷db-ea bstuihfia (Wfutú, 3>>2). ^ar supubsta, `f oardf ib rbspaeibr f bstfs prbkuetfs
thbeb gaesbgubeghfs sacrb `fs ibghshaebs ib` shkuhbetb ehvb`.
Be sbkueia `ukfr, sb begubetrfe fqub``fs ibghshaebs qub sb uchgfe be b` ehvb` ib
`as supubstas dbtaia`÷khgas, y qub rbbrbe f `fs oardfs a hestrudbetas fibgufias
pfrf fcarifr b` acjbta ib bstuiha. @fs prbkuetfs qub fquä ibcb rbspaeibr b` ghbe-
täga bstæe fsaghfifs f: ±guæ` sbræ `f bstrftbkhf tb÷rhga-dbtaia`÷khgf ib `f hevbsth-
kfgh÷e1 ±sacrb què bjbs sb gaestruhræ `f bvhibeghf bdpärhgf1 B``a rbquhbrb tbebr be
gubetf `f gaegbpgh÷e ib `f gfusf`hifi, b` pfpb` ib `f tbaräf be b` ihsböa ib` bstuiha,`f ibehgh÷e y ib`hdhtfgh÷e ib` ‐acjbta— y b` gaetbxta, b` ihsböa ib `as hestrudbetas
pfrf praiughr `f bvhibeghf, fsä gada `as prac`bdfs fsaghfias f `f gfpfghifi ib kb-
ebrf`hzfgh÷e qub aorbgbe `fs bstrftbkhfs dbtaia`÷khgfs uth`hzfifs.
Wh sb bvf`úfe `fs bstrftbkhfs dbtaia`÷khgfs qub mfe prbiadhefia be b` gfdpa
ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs bs pashc`b fivbrthr qub ibsib `as aräkbebs ib `fs ghbeghfs ib
pa`äthgfs mfstf `f iègfif ib `as föas sbtbetf mfe prbiadhefia `as bstuihas ib gfsa.
Whe bdcfrka, bstas bstuihas ib gfsa sb mfe bedfrgfia be ibghshaebs bphstbda`÷kh-gfs ihsthetfs. ar ue fia sb begubetrfe `as bstuihas ib gfsa qub thbebe uef hetbegh÷e
gadpfrfthvf y qub mfe shia úth`bs tfeta pfrf b` ibsfrra``a ib mhp÷tbshs ghbetägfs
ib efturf`bzf gfusf` gada pfrf paebr f prubcf fqub``fs mhp÷tbshs ibrhvfifs ib `fs
tbaräfs. ^ar atra, sb begubetrfe fqub``as bstuihas ib gfsa ib efturf`bzf bxp`arftarhf
``bvfias f gfca cfja `as supubstas bphstbda`÷khgas praphas ib` pasbdphrhsda. Be
bstas gfsas, b` feæ`hshs sb shtúf be b` ihsgursa ib f pa`äthgf ( pa`hghbs) a be `fs pbrgbp-
ghaebs qub `as praphas cbebghfrhas ibsfrra``fe sacrb `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf, bsta bs, `f
oardf be `f qub `as krupas fobgtfias (rb)gaestruybe `f pa`äthgf.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
=>
rbspaeibr b` shkuhbetb hetbrrakfetb: ±g÷da oueghaefe `fs arkfehzfghaebs púc`hgfs f
trfvès ib `fs guf`bs sb hdp`bdbetfe `fs pa`äthgfs1 ‐@f gubsth÷e bs sfcbr g÷da (be
ouegh÷e ib guæ`bs bstrftbkhfs) vfe f pashghaefrsb `as fgtarbs fidhehstrfthvas (ihrbg-
ghaebs, dhehstbrhas, gubrpas ib oueghaefrhas púc`hgas) hdp`hgfias be `f b`fcarfgh÷e
y pubstf be dfrgmf ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf— (Du``br 3>6>: 62>). Bstb thpa ib bstuihassb fshbetf be tbaräfs ib `f curagrfghf bstftf`, `f sagha`akäf ib `fs arkfehzfghaebs y b`
ibrbgma fidhehstrfthva.
Ref tbrgbrf prbkuetf bs fqub``f heifkf fgbrgf ib `as hdpfgtas ib `fs pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs be `f saghbifi, prbkuetæeiasb be què dbihif `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib uef
ibtbrdhefif púc`hgf f daihgfia b` tbjhia saghf` qub cusgfcf fobgtfr. @f prbkuetf
qub fquä sb prbtbeib rbspaeibr bs: ±g÷da dbihr a bvf`ufr `as rbsu`tfias b hdpfg-
tas ib uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf1 @fs hevbsthkfghaebs bvf`ufthvfs mfe tbehia su gfdpadæs obgueia be `f bgaeadäf y b` trfcfja saghf`, parqub gubetfe gae mbrrfdhbetfs
dbtaia`÷khgfs dæs s÷`hifs pfrf shstbdfthzfr `as rbsu`tfias b hdpfgtas ib uef hetbr-
vbegh÷e bstftf` sacrb uef ibtbrdhefif pac`fgh÷e, shtufgh÷e a gaetbxta (Cu`gauro y
Gfriaza, 3>>=).
Be b` shkuhbetb ihfkrfdf sb shstbdfthzf `fs pasturfs fetbrhardbetb dbeghaefifs:
Oubetb: B`fcarfgh÷e praphf be cfsb f Asz`fl y A‘Iaeeb`` (68=3).
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
=6
Be b` ihfkrfdf ib `f hzquhbrif `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf bs gaeshibrfif `f vfrhfc`b ib-
pbeihbetb y `as fgtarbs hetbrvhehbetbs be b` pragbsa ib oardu`fgh÷e b hdp`bdbetf-
gh÷e, fsä gada ofgtarbs bstrugturf`bs b hesthtughaef`bs, sae gaeshibrfias gada pa-
shc`bs vfrhfc`bs heibpbeihbetbs. ^ar b` gaetrfrha, be b` ihfkrfdf ib `f ibrbgmf, `f
pa`äthgf púc`hgf bs trftfif gada `f vfrhfc`b heibpbeihbetb, dhbetrfs qub `as bobgtas(rbsu`tfias be hdpfgtas) gaesthtuybe `fs vfrhfc`bs ibpbeihbetbs ib bstas bstuihas.
@as bstuihas ib `f ‐gfjf ebkrf— ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs pubibe betraegfrsb tfeta be
uef ihdbesh÷e gada atrf. Wh sb gaeshibrf qub `fs sugbshvfs ‐tadfs ib pashgh÷e— ib`
fpfrfta curagræthga rbsu`tfe be uef daihgfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf tf` gada oub
ihsböfif be b` pragbsa pa`äthga, pairäf pbesfrsb ibetra ib `f prhdbrf `÷khgf. ^ar b`
gaetrfrha, sh sb fef`hzf gada f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e f trfvès ib fs fkbeghfs curagræthgfs
qub kbsthaefe uef ibtbrdhefif púc`hgf kbebrfe ibtbrdhefias bobgtas, dæs f``æ ibg÷da oub p`fehgfif, ibcbräf pbesfrsb ibetra ib` ihfkrfdf ib `f ibrbgmf.
?. BE SBWRDBE
B` prap÷shta ib bstf prhdbrf g`fsb mf shia fgbrgfreas, be prhdbr `ukfr, f` gaegbp-
ta ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf, gae b` prap÷shta ib gadprbeibr `as f`gfegbs ib` dhsda. @f
uth`hifi ib bstf fpraxhdfgh÷e gaegbptuf` ea sa`a rbdhtb f` p`fea tb÷rhga shea qub
pbrshkub uef ef`hifi bdhebetbdbetb prægthgf: `f ib paibr hibethgfr eubstra acjb-ta ib bstuiha. Wbkuhifdbetb, sb mf rbf`hzfia uef crbvb prbsbetfgh÷e sacrb g÷da sb
mf gaestruhia b` gfdpa ib `fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs. F gaetheufgh÷e sb mf ibstfgfia
`f hdpartfeghf ib` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs, ga`agfeia be b` gbetra ib `f ihsgush÷e `as
ihvbrsas pfrfihkdfs fsä gada `f efturf`bzf ib` ra` ibsbdpböfia par b` fef`hstf. ^ar
ú`thda, sb mfe p`fetbfia f`kuefs gubsthaebs ib äeia`b tb÷rhga-dbtaia`÷khgf sacrb
g÷da bstuihfr `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, paehbeia `f ftbegh÷e bspbghf`dbetb sacrb `fs
prbkuetfs qub pubibe kuhfr `fs hevbsthkfghaebs fgfièdhgfs be `f dftbrhf.
Sbobrbeghfs
Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, @uhs O., ‐Dfrga pfrf b` feæ`hshs ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs—, beDfrhöbz Efvfrra, O. y _. Kfrzf Gfetú (Gadps.) ^a`äthgf púc`hgf y ibdagrfghfbe Fdèrhgf @fthef , Dèxhga, Dhkub` Æekb` ^arrúf, 3>>8.
Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, @uhs O., ‐Bstuiha hetraiugatrha—, be Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, @.O. (gadp.) B` bstuiha ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, Dèxhga, Dhkub` Æekb` ^arruf,
688?.Cfgmrfgm, ^btbr y Dartae W. Cfrftz, ‐Ywa Ofgbs ao ^awbr—, Ymb Fdbrhgfe ^a`h-
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
=7
^a`scy, E., Gadduehty ^awbr fei ^a`hthgf` Ymbary, Ebw Mfvbe: Xf`b Rehvbrshty^rbss, 68?7.
^appbr, Lfr`, @f `÷khgf ib `f hevbsthkfgh÷e ghbetäohgf, Dfirhi, Ybgeas, 68;6.
Vufib, B. W., Fef`yshs oar ^uc`hg Ibghshaes, Ebw Xarl, B`sbvhbr, 68;2.
Wfcfthbr, ^fu`, ‐Yawfri Cbttbr Ymbarhbs ao tmb ^a`hgy ^ragbss—, ^a`hthgf` Wghbegbfei ^a`hthgs, 39: 69;-62?, 6886.
Wfutú, Sutm, Yaia bs tbaräf, Cubeas Fhrbs, @udhbrb, 3>>2.
Wgmustbr, Obibrhga y Dfrha ^bgmbey, ‐Acjbthvhifi she ebutrf`hifi vf`arfthvf sb-kúe Jðrkbe Mfcbrdfs—, be Obibrhga Wgmustbr (Gadp.) Oh`asaoäf y Dètaias ib`fs Ghbeghfs Waghf`bs, Cubeas Fhrbs, Dfefethf`, 3>>3.
Wgmustbr, Obibrhga, ‐Ib` efturf`hsda f` bsgbefrha pastbdphrhstf—, be Wgmustbr,Obibrhga (Gadp.) Oh`asaoäf y Dètaias ib `fs Ghbeghfs Waghf`bs. Cubeas Fhrbs,Dfefethf`, 3>>3.
Wlagpa`, Ymbif, ‐B` Bstfia rbkrbsf f` prhdbr p`fea: bstrftbkhfs ib feæ`hshs be `fhevbsthkfgh÷e fgtuf`—, Zaef Fchbrtf, 2>: ;6-633, 68=8.
Wlagpa`, Ymbif, ‐Crhekhek tmb Wtftb Cfgl He: Wtrftbkhbs ao Fef`yshs he GurrbetSbsbfrgm—, be ^btbr Bvfes, I. Subsgmbdbybr y Y. Wlagpa` (Bis.) Crhekhek tmbWtftb Cfgl He, Eubvf Xarl, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 68=2.
[bcbr, Dfx, Bgaeadäf y Waghbifi, Dèxhga, IO: Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf,6883.
[bhdbr, I. @. y F. S. _hehek, ^a`hgy Fef`yshs: Gaegbpts fei ^rfgthgb. EubvfJbrsby, ^rbethgb Mf``, 68=8.
[h`ifvsly, Ffrae, Wpbflhek Yrutm ta ^awbr, Castae, @htt`b, Crawe, (68;8).[h`ifvsly, Ffrae y Jboorby ^rbssdfe, Hdp`bdbetfthae, Gf`hoarehf, Rehvbrshty aoGf`hoarehf ^rbss, 68;7.
[h``hfds, [., Wtuiyhek Hdp`bdbetfthae: Dbtmaia`aky fei Fidhehstrfthvb Hs-subs, Gmftmfd, E.J., Gmftmfd Mausb, 68=3.
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GF^ÄYR@A H_. B` ^ragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs
6. Hetraiuggh÷e. 3. B` beoaqub pragbsf` ib f pa`äthgf púc`hgf: sus aräkbebsy bva`ugh÷e. 7. @f ibehgh÷e ib` prac`bdf (a b` arhkbe ib `f pa`äthgf f trf-vès ib `f prac`bdfthzfgh÷e ib `f rbf`hifi). 9. @f oardfgh÷e ib `f fkbeif.2. @f gaestruggh÷e ib f`tbrefthvfs. ?. @f tadf ib f ibghsh÷e. ;. B` pragbsaib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib fs pa`äthgfs. ;.6. @f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e gada prac`bdf.;.3. @as bstuihas sacrb b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e. ;.7. @fs pbrspbgthvfs
pfrf b` feæ`hshs ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e. ;.9. B` èxhta ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e. =.@f bvf`ufgh÷e. =.6. Bva`ugh÷e ib `as fcarifjbs be tarea f `f bvf`ufgh÷e.
6. HEYSAIRGGH×E
@f gaesthtugh÷e ib` gfdpa ib fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs ‗tf` gada sb sböf`÷ be b` gfpä-
tu`a fetbrhar‗ thbeb su arhkbe be `as föas ghegubetf f `f `uz ib `as phaebras trfcfjas
puc`hgfias par Mfra`i @fsswb`` (@fsswb``, 6826, 6827, 682?). Be fqub``as trfcfjas,
b` pfirb oueifiar ib `fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs ‗gada usuf`dbetb sb `a gaeagb f @fs-
swb``‗ ibsfrra``f ue prakrfdf ib hevbsthkfgh÷e qub cusgf frthgu`fr ib oardf shstb-
dæthgf `f ghbeghf (a b` gaeaghdhbeta ghbetäga) gae b` pragbsa ib tadf ib ibghshaebs.
B` fdchghasa praybgta p`fetbfia par @fsswb`` (6826), `f ‐arhbetfgh÷e mfghf `fs
pa`äthgfs—, sb ibsp`bkfcf be ias ihdbeshaebs ib oardf shdu`tæebf. ^ar ue `fia, sb
hetbrbsfcf par b` bstuiha ib` pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf ( pa`hgy pragbss): bsta bs, par b`
ibsfrra``a ib ue gaeaghdhbeta ghbetäga qub pbrdhtf bxp`hgfr `f oardfgh÷e, oardu-
`fgh÷e y bjbgugh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs uth`hzfeia `as dètaias y sfcbrbs ib `fs
taifs ghbeghfs saghf`bs y `f pshga`akäf (prapubstf hetbrihsghp`hefrhf). ^ar atra, be `fsebgbshifibs ib hetb`hkbeghf ib bsb pragbsa ib f pa`äthgf: bsta bs, be f hegarparfgh÷e
y uth`hzfgh÷e ib bsas sfcbrbs a gaeaghdhbetas pfrf dbjarfr `f gf`hifi y gfethifi ib
`f heoardfgh÷e ihspaehc`b y pravbbr ib dbjarbs daib`as gfusf`bs (tbaräfs ghbetägfs)
f `as tadfiarbs ib ibghshaebs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
Wh chbe be `f prapubstf hehghf` ib @fsswb`` bstfs ias ihdbeshaebs (gaeaghdhbeta
ib` y gaeaghdhbeta be b` pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf) ibcäfe bstfr pbrobgtfdbetb frthgu-
`fifs, be `f prægthgf ihbrae arhkbe f ias sucgfdpas y thpas ib prægthgfs f` hetbrhar
ib `fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs. Sbgupbrfeia `f hdpartfeghf ib `f prhdbrf ib fqub``fs
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
=?
ihdbeshaebs, sb vf hr ibsfrra``feia y gaesa`hifeia ue praybgta ‗dæs a dbeas he-
tbrihsghp`hefrha, sbkúe b` gfsa a `fs hesthtughaebs fgfièdhgfs heva`ugrfifs‗ ib he-
vbsthkfgh÷e y oardfgh÷e fgfièdhgf gfsh bxg`ushvfdbetb arhbetfia f `f cúsqubif ib
iftas y tbaräfs qub pbrdhtfe bxp`hgfr b` pragbsa ib f pa`äthgf púc`hgf. Be tfeta, ib f
prbdhebeghf ib f sbkueif ihdbesh÷e sb ibsfrra``fræ ue praybgta arhbetfia f pa`hgy
fef`yshs (prapubstf be kbebrf` du`thihsghp`hefrhf) qub prbtbeib va`vbr dæs ghbetäga
b` pragbsa ib tadf ib ibghshaebs, iatfeia f `as ibghsarbs ib heoardfgh÷e fibgufif
pfrf b` ihsböa b hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib dbjarbs pa`äthgfs.
Betarea f `f prhdbrf ib bstfs ihdbeshaebs (vhegu`fif f `f gaesa`hifgh÷e ib ue pra-
ybgta ib hevbsthkfgh÷e fgfièdhga) bs qub surkbe `as prhdbras hetbetas ib kbebrfr dfr-
gas fef`äthgas fibgufias qub pubife arhbetfr y bstrugturfr b` bstuiha ib `fs pa`äthgfs
púc hgfs. Be bstb gaetbxta be as föas ghegubetf gadhbezf f ibsfrra``frsb `a qub sb mfgaeaghia gada b` beoaqub pragbsf` ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf (tfdchèe ibeadhefia daib`a
sbgubeghf` a daib`a ib ofsbs a btfpfs ib `fs pa`äthgfs). @f hdpartfeghf qub mf fiquhrhia
bstb beoaqub ‗qub mf shia mbkbd÷ehga mfstf ef`bs ib `as föas sbtbetf f` hetbrhar ib `fs
ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs‗ rbshib be su gfpfghifi pfrf ofgh`htfr b` bstuiha ib obe÷dbeas gad-
p bjas gada fs pa`äthgfs, dbihfetb `f shdp`hgfgh÷e f trfvès ib bsqubdfs qub pbrdhtfe
ihsgrhdhefr y g`fshgfr dbjar `as obe÷dbeas f fef`hzfr y kuhfr f` hevbsthkfiar be `f
hibethgfgh÷e ib sus prbkuetfs ib hevbsthkfgh÷e y uehifibs ib feæ`hshs (@fsswb``, 6827)6.
B` prap÷shta ib bstb gfpätu`a bs prbsbetfr b` beoaqub pragbsf` ib `fs pa`äthgfs, uefgaegbptuf`hzfgh÷e duy bxtbeihif par su gfrægtbr fef`äthga y mburästhga, qub gaeshstb be
fcarifr `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs gada ue pragbsa bstrugturfia be ihsthetfs btfpfs a ofsbs
hetbrrb`fghaefifs, b hibethgfr fs gubsthaebs, prbkuetfs y prac`bdfs qub be gfif uef
ib bsfs btfpfs sb cusgfe rbsa`vbr.
3. B@ BEOAVRB ^SAGBWF@ IB @F ^A@ÄYHGF ^ÚC@HGF: WRW ASÄKBEBW X B_A@RGH×E
B` bstuiha ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf gada pragbsa mf gaesthtuhia ue pueta ib hebxh÷e
be `f ihsghp`hef ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs pubsta qub mf pbrdhthia supbrfr fqub``f
gaegbpgh÷e sbkúe `f guf` b` feæ`hshs ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf sb rbstrhekäf f` dadbeta
ibghshaef`, f` bstuiha ib `f ‐krfe ibghsh÷e— ib `f futarhifi.
6 Wacrb bstb pueta sb mfe gbetrfia tfdchèe uef ib `fs gräthgfs qub pastbrhardbetb sb `b mfe mbgma fbstb beoaqub y qub sb praoueihzfræe be b` Gfpätu`a _H.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
=;
@f prhdbrf vbrsh÷e ib bstb beoaqub pragbsf` ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf mf shia p`fe-
tbfif par b` pfirb oueifiar ib `fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, Mfra`i @fsswb``.
@f prapubstf ib @fsswb`` (682?) hibethgfcf arhkhef`dbetb shbtb btfpfs: f) hetb`hkbe-
ghf: rbbrb f `f hdpartfeghf ib `f heoardfgh÷e y b` gaeaghdhbeta pfrf `f kbebrfgh÷e
ib daib`as gfusf`bs qub pbrdhtfe `f p`fehgfgh÷e y `f prbihggh÷e< c) pradagh÷e:
sb vhegu`f f `f kbebrfgh÷e ib f`tbrefthvfs ib pa`äthgfs< g) prbsgrhpgh÷e: sb gbetrf be
b` pragbsa ib pradu`kfgh÷e ib `fs rbk`fs< i) hevagfgh÷e: rbbrb f `f gfrfgtbrhzfgh÷e
pravhshaef` ib gaeiugtfs be ouegh÷e ib `fs prbsgrhpghaebs bstfc`bghifs be `f btfpf
fetbrhar< b) fp`hgfgh÷e: sb fcagf f` feæ`hshs ib` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib `fs
rbk`fs a ibghshaebs< o) tbrdhefgh÷e: rbbrb f` ef` ib `f pa`äthgf, uef vbz gaeg`uhia
b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e, y k) bvf`ufgh÷e: sb gbetrf be b` bstuiha ib `fs gaesb-
gubeghfs a bobgtas qub f pa`äthgf kbebrf, y qub shrvbe pfrf rbtraf`hdbetfr b` pragbsa.Sbtadfeia `f prapubstf ib @fsswb``, atras futarbs mfe ibsfrra``fia y pbrobggha-
efia b` daib`a, fdp`hfeia b` eúdbra ib btfpfs y/a prbghsfeia be gfif uef ib b``fs
`f efturf`bzf ib `fs prbkuetfs f rbspaeibr, bsta bs, `f bspbghghifi ib `as pragbsas
pa`äthgas y tègehgas heva`ugrfias, `as rbqubrhdhbetas heoardfghaef`bs, `as fgtarbs
davh`hzfias, b` thpa ib gaehgthvhifi qub sb kbebrf, fsä gada `fs fpraxhdfghaebs
dbtaia`÷khgfs fibgufifs. Betrb bstas futarbs sb ibstfgfe `fs gaetrhcughaebs rbf`h-
zfifs bspbghf`dbetb be `f iègfif ib` ;> par futarbs gada Jaebs (68;>), Sasb (68;7),
Crbwbr (68;9), Feibrsae (68;2), Jbelhes (68;=) a Dfy y [h`ifvsly (68;=). Ea bs `fhetbegh÷e ibsfrra``fr fquä gfif uef ib bstfs fpraxhdfghaebs, fuequb rbsu`tf hdpar-
tfetb ibtbebrsb crbvbdbetb be ias ib bsfs gaetrhcughaebs.
@f prhdbrf ib b``fs bs `f rbf`hzfif par Jaebs (68;>). Wbkúe bstb futar, bs pashc`b
hibethgfr ghega btfpfs be b` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs: 6) `f hibethgfgh÷e ib` prac`b-
df qub rbg`fdf `f ftbegh÷e ib` kachbrea a sacrb b` qub b` kachbrea ibsbf/prbtbeib
hetbrvbehr< 3) `f oardu`fgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf, qub fcfrgf `f gaestruggh÷e ib f`tbrefth-
vfs ib pa`äthgfs y `f sb`bggh÷e ib ue gursa ib fggh÷e< 7) `f `bkhthdfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgfa gursa ib fggh÷e b`bkhia, bsta gadprbeib `f frkudbetfgh÷e, bvhibeghfs, sädca`as
y oueifdbetas qub bstæe ibtræs ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf b`bkhif< 9) `f fp`hgfgh÷e, qub
rbbrb f` pragbsa ib fidhehstrfgh÷e a kbsth÷e ib `f pa`äthgf y qub supaeb `f gaevbr -
sh÷e ib as hesudas pubstas f ihspashgh÷e be praiugtas a rbsu`tfias gaeshstbetbs gae
`fs dbtfs bstfc`bghifs be b` bstftuta ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf< y b) `f bvf`ufgh÷e, qub
supaeb `f dbihgh÷e ib `as rbsu`tfias a gaesbgubeghfs qub `f pa`äthgf praiugb sacrb
b` gaetbxta, `as gadpartfdhbetas ib `as fgtarbs, sus pbrgbpghaebs y, be bspbghf`,
sacrb b` prac`bdf ftbeihia. Wbkúe bstb futar, gfif uef ib bstfs btfpfs ib` pragbsa
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
==
sb vhegu`f gae ihsthetfs fgthvhifibs oueghaef`bs, qub sae gftbkarhzfifs ib oardf
ihobrbetb ibsib b` pueta ib vhstf ib` kachbrea, y qub bstæe fsaghfifs gae ihsthetas
praiugtas (autputs) (Jaebs 68;>: 69).
Atrf gaetrhcugh÷e hdpartfetb bs `f rbf`hzfif par Feibrsae (68;2), quhbe rbga-
eagb bxp`äghtfdbetb qub `f bstrugturfgh÷e ib` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs be btfpfs bsuef gaestruggh÷e tb÷rhgf, y qub par tfeta bs pashc`b begaetrfr be `as pragbsas rbf`bs
ghbrtfs supbrpashghaebs a `ädhtbs df` ibehias3. Wbkúe bstb futar tfdchèe bs pashc`b
hibethgfr ghega btfpfs, fuequb `fs ibeadhef ib oardf ihsthetf: 6) `f fkbeif: rbbrb
f `as prac`bdfs qub rbghcbe `f ftbegh÷e par pfrtb ib` kachbrea y supaeb bxp`hgfr b`
pragbsa par b` guf` ghbrtas prac`bdfs sae ftbeihias (ea ebgbsfrhfdbetb rbsub`tas) y
atras ea< 3) f oardu`fgh÷e ib f`tbrefthvfs: gadprbeib b` ibsfrra``a ib prapubstfs ib
gursas ib fggh÷e qub sbfe fgbptfc`bs, pbrthebetbs y ofgthc`bs, y bxhkb ifr gubetf ib`f rfghaef`hifi a ea ib bsb pragbsa y ib` ra` qub jubkfe `fs hibfs y b` gaeaghdhbeta
bxpbrta< 7) `f fiapgh÷e ib `f ibghsh÷e: heg`uyb `f b`bggh÷e y `bkhthdfgh÷e ib ue gursa
ib fggh÷e y rbquhbrb bxp`hgfr par què sb mf b`bkhia a prharhzfia bsb pa`äthgf be `ukfr
ib `fs atrfs f`tbrefthvfs< 9) `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e: rbbrb f` pragbsa ib fp`hgfgh÷e ib
`f pa`äthgf y supaeb bxp`hgfr `as gadpartfdhbetas fidhehstrfthvas qub ibsbegfibef
`f pa`äthgf y `f rb`fgh÷e (gfusf`) betrb bstas y `as rbsu`tfias ib `f pa`äthgf< y 2) `f
bvf`ufgh÷e: rbbrb f `as bsoubrzas qub `as kachbreas rbf`hzfe gae b` prap÷shta ib
ibtbrdhefr `f bgfghf, bghbeghf y bobgthvhifi ib `fs pa`äthgfs sb`bgghaefifs.
Be bstb gfpätu`a uth`hzfrbdas `f g`fshgfgh÷e prapubstf par Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf
(688?f), quhbe fdp`äf `fs g`fshgfghaebs fetbrhardbetb prapubstfs. Wbkúe b` futar,
b` pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf gadprbeib shbtb btfpfs.
3 Bs prbghsa oardu`fr fquä uef hdpartfetb fivbrtbeghf. Be bobgta, pbesfr `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf gada
ue pragbsa qub gadprbeib vfrhfs btfpfs sa`a gaesthtuyb ue ihspashthva fef`äthga< rfz÷e par `f guf`bstf gaegbptuf`hzfgh÷e ea ibcb gaeiughr f pbesfr `fs btfpfs gada bvbetas sugbshvas, aribefias gra-ea`÷khgfdbetb y rbf`dbetb sbpfrfc`bs pubsta qub be `f prægthgf thbeibe f supbrpaebrsb uefs f atrfs.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
=8
B` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs
@f prhdbrf bs `f ibehgh÷e ib` prac`bdf. Fquä `a hdpartfetb bs ibtbrdhefr guæ`
bs b` prac`bdf, guæ`bs sae sus ihdbeshaebs a gadpaebetbs y guæ`bs sus gfusfs. @f
sbkueif bs `f oardfgh÷e ib `f fkbeif, qub gaeshstb be fef`hzfr què ofgtarbs gaetrh-
cuybe f qub uef shtufgh÷e sb gaevhbrtf be prac`bdf y bsb prac`bdf be acjbta ib uef
fggh÷e kucbrefdbetf`, y quhbebs sae `as fgtarbs qub hetbrvhbebe be b` pragbsa. @fshkuhbetb btfpf bs `f gaestruggh÷e ib apghaebs, qub gaeshstb be fef`hzfr guæ`bs sae
`fs f`tbrefthvfs ihspaehc`bs y vhfc`bs pfrf rbsa`vbr b` prac`bdf y què rhbskas, cbeb-
ghas y gastas fgadpföf f gfif uef ib b``fs. @f gufrtf btfpf bs `f tadf ib ibghsh÷e.
Fquä b` prac`bdf bs ibtbrdhefr guæ` ib taifs `fs f`tbrefthvfs ihspaehc`bs gaesthtuyb
`f dbjar apgh÷e. @f pr÷xhdf btfpf bs `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf qub gaeshstb
be fef`hzfr guæ`bs sae `fs fgghaebs gaeiugbetbs pfrf ``bvfr f gfca bxhtasfdbetb `f
ibghsh÷e, pfrf f`gfezfr `as acjbthvas y dbtfs qub `f pa`äthgf sb prapaeb. @f sbxtfbs `f bvf`ufgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf. Be bstf btfpf `a hdpartfetb bs ibghihr què y g÷da
bvf`ufr y pfrf què ebs. Fsä ``bkfdas f `f ú`thdf btfpf, `f ib tbrdhefgh÷e a gaeth -
eufgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf, qub gaeshstb be ibghihr f `f `uz ib `as hesudas qub crheif `f
bvf`ufgh÷e sh `f pa`äthgf ibcb gaetheufr, ef`hzfr a rbvhsfrsb.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
8>
OFWBW IB@ ^SAGBWA IB @F^A@ÄYHGF ÚC@HGF
^SBKREYFW VRB ^@FEYBF B@FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
IBOHEHGH×E IB@ SAC@BDF ±Guæ` bs b` prac`bdf1 ±Guæ`bs sae susihdbeshaebs1 ±Guæ`bs sae `fs gfusfs ib` prac`bdf1 ±F quhèe fobgtf y be què dbihif1
BWYSRGYRSFGH×E IB @F FKBEIF
±Vuè ofgtarbs gaetrhcuybe f qubibtbrdhefifs shtufghaebs sb gaevhbrtfebe prac`bdfs1 ±Guæeia y par què ghbrtas
prac`bdfs dbrbgbe f ftbegh÷e ib`kachbrea1 ±Vuè fgtarbs hetbrvhbebe1
OASDR@FGH×E IB F@YBSEFYH_FW
±Guæ` bs eubstra p`fe pfrf beorbetfr b`
prac`bdf1±Guæ`bs ibcbe sbr eubstras acjbthvas y
prharhifibs1 ±Vuè f`tbrefthvfs bxhstbe pfrf f`gfezfr bsfs dbtfs1 ±Vuè rhbskas, cbebghas y gastas fgadpföfe f gfif
f`tbrefthvf1 ±Vuè f`tbrefthvf praiugb `asdbjarbs rbsu`tfias gae `as dbearbs bobgtasebkfthvas1
YADF IB IBGHWHAEBW
±Bs vhfc`b tègehgfdbetb `f f`tbrefthvf
sb`bgghaefif1 ±Bs vhfc`b pa`äthgfdbetb `ff`tbrefthvf sb`bgghaefif1 ±Guæ` bs b` ra` ib`f rfghaef`hifi be bsb pragbsa1
HD^@BDBEYFGH×E
±Vuhèe bs b` rbspaesfc`b ib `fhdp`bdbetfgh÷e1±Vuè dbihas sb usfe pfrf fsbkurfr qub`f pa`äthgf sb ``bvb gfca ib fgubria f`
p`fe prbvhsta1 ±Vuè gaehgtas pubibe
surkhr be `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e1 ±Gae quègaesbgubeghfs1
B_F@RFGH×E
±^aibdas fsbkurfr qub mbdas f`gfezfia`as acjbthvas1 ±Vuè grhtbrhas mfy qub tbebrbe gubetf pfrf juzkfr `as rbsu`tfias ib `f
pa`äthgf1 ±Mfy qub gaetheufr a tbrdhefr `f pa`äthgf1 ±^aibdas ibghr qub `f pa`äthgf mfshia justf1
Oubetb: B`fcarfgh÷e praphf be cfsb f Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf (688?).
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7 @F IBOHEHGH×E IB@ ^SAC@BDF (A B@ ASHKBE IB @F ^A@ÄYHGF F YSF_ÈW IB @F ^SAC@BDFYHZFGH×E IB @F SBF@HIFI)
Bstf btfpf rbbrb f` pragbsa f trfvès ib` guf` ghbrtas fgtarbs saghf`bs hibethgfe y
ibebe ue prac`bdf y `a gaevhbrtbe be saghf`dbetb rb`bvfetb. Bstf ofsb sb begubetrfbstrbgmfdbetb `hkfif (y f vbgbs sb supbrpaeb) f `f btfpf ib oardfgh÷e ib `f fkbeif
pubsta qub ‐ga`agfr uef gubsth÷e be `f fkbeif shkehgf hdp`äghtf a bxp äghtfdbetb hr
ifeia oardf f uef ibehgh÷e ib` prac`bdf fgbptfc`b pfrf b` púc`hga y, sacrb taia,
trftfc`b pfrf b` kachbrea— (Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, 688?c: 26). Whe bdcfrka, `f hibethgf-
gh÷e y ibehgh÷e ib ue prac`bdf par pfrtb ib uea a vfrhas krupas saghf`bs, a heg`usa
par f`kúe ædchta fidhehstrfthva, ea supaeb ebgbsfrhfdbetb su heg`ush÷e be f fkbeif,
pubs pubibe qubifr pastbrkfias par `f bsgfsf prharhifi fshkefif par b` kachbrea a
parqub `f ftbegh÷e púc`hgf bstæ agupfif (a ihstrfäif) gae atrfs prac`bdæthgfsFmarf chbe, pfrf paibr ibehr ue prac`bdf bs prbghsa ihspaebr ib heoardfgh÷e
qub pbrdhtf rbgaeagbr `as gadpaebetbs rb`bvfetbs ib` prac`bdf, guæ`bs ib b``as
sae eaghvas a pbrghchias gada eaghvas, guæ`bs ib bsas gadpaebetbs sae trftfc`bs
kucbrefdbetf`dbetb y guæ`bs sae `as gastas bgae÷dhgas qub `f ftbegh÷e ib bsb
prac`bdf kbebrf. Fibdæs, bs ebgbsfrha ihspaebr ib tbaräfs a daib`as bxp`hgfthvas
qub pbrdhtfe gadprbeibr fs gfusfs ib` prac`bdf y, f` dhsda thbdpa, ibehr guæ`bs
ib bsfs gfusfs sae trftfc`bs y guæ`bs ea, sbkúe gaeshibrfghaebs bgae÷dhgfs, arkfeh-zfghaef`bs y gaeiugtuf`bs/darf`bs. Fshdhsda bs prbghsa gadprbeibr `as bobgtas be
thbdpa y bspfgha qub b` prac`bdf pubib kbebrfr, y bvf`ufr pfrf quhèe gaesthtuyb ue
prac`bdf, `fs rfzaebs par `fs qub `a mfe hdpu`sfia y guæ`bs sae `as gastas pa`äthgas
qub bsb prac`bdf kbebrf.
Fue fsä f tfrbf ib ibehr ue prac`bdf bs iac`bdbetb gadp`hgfif. ar ue fia, b``a
sb ibcb f qub `as prac`bdfs púc`hgas sae prac`bdfs ib krfe gadp`bjhifi qub hdphibe
ue ftfqub hetbkrf` f` prac`bdf y, par tfeta, su sa`ugh÷e ibehthvf. Fetb bstf shtufgh÷e
`f úehgf f`tbrefthvf ihspaehc`b gaeshstb be ibsfkrbkfr `as krfeibs y gadp`bjas prac b-dfs púc`hgas be pbquböas prac`bdfs qub pubife sbr fcarifias par b` kachbrea gae
`as rbgursas qub ihspaeb. ‐^ar gaeshkuhbetb, orbetb f dugmas prac`bdfs púc`hgas ”ea
mfy sa`ugh÷e shea rbsa`ugh÷e‘. Mfy qub ftfgfr`as uef y atrf vbz, she ibsdfya, pfrf hr rb-
davhbeia sus fspbgtas dæs eaghvas y dæs bxtbeihias b hr`as trfesoardfeia dbihfetb
`f hetbrvbegh÷e shstbdæthgf— (Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, 688?c: 2?).
^ar atrf pfrtb, bs prbghsa rbgaeagbr qub `as prac`bdfs ea bxhstbe par sä dhsdas
shea qub sae mbgmas a gubsthaebs fs qub pubibe a ea sbr ibehifs gada prac`bdfs.^ar tfeta, gufeia sb mfc`f ib prac`bdf ea sa`a mfy qub tadfr be gaeshibrfgh÷e
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`f shtufgh÷e ofgtuf` (`f rbf`hifi) shea tfdchèe b` gaejueta ib grbbeghfs, vf`arbs y
bxpbgtfthvfs heihvhiuf`bs, krupf`bs a saghf`bs, pubsta qub sae èstfs ú`thdfs `fs qub
tbrdhefe par trfesoardfr f`kueas mbgmas be prac`bdfs. @as prac`bdfs ib pa`äth-
gfs sae gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs qub rbbjfe gaegbpghaebs bspbgägfs ib `f rbf`hifi
(Gacc y B`ibr, 68;6).Bs par b``a qub f ibehgh÷e qub sb b iè f ue prac`bdf shbdprb vf f sbr orustrfetb
pfrf f`kueas fgtarbs pubsta qub be saghbifibs fchbrtfs y ibdagræthgfs `f pashch`hifi
ib kbebrfr ue gaesbesa be tarea f `fs gfusfs ib` prac`bdf y su sa`ugh÷e (bs ibghr,
be tarea f su ibehgh÷e) ea sa`a bs rbdatf shea fibdæs hdpashc`b. @as prac`bdfs
púc`hgas, f` sbr gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs y ea rbf`hifibs acjbthvfs, ibpbeibe ib `fs
vf`arfghaebs, pbrgbpghaebs y pbrspbgthvfs ib `as ghuififeas, krupas heva`ugrfias y
fgtarbs, qub rbsu`tfe ib `f gaetrfstfgh÷e ib ghbrtas grhtbrhas ib ibsbfch`hifi (sucjbth-vas) gae `f hetbrprbtfgh÷e (tfdchèe sucjbthvf) qub `as fgtarbs rbf`hzfe ib `f rbf`hifi.
F su vbz bsas grhtbrhas ib ibsbfch`hifi fsä gada `f oardf be qub sb gaestruyb `f rbf-
`hifi sae ebgbsfrhfdbetb dú`thp`bs par f du`thtui ib fkbetbs saghf`bs heva`ugrfias,
`a qub hdp`hgf f gabxhstbeghf ib vhshaebs ihobrbetbs y be gaehgta, f pastu`fgh÷e ib
rb`fghaebs gfusf`bs ea gaesbesufifs y `f davh`hzfgh÷e ib rbgursas be gadpbtbeghf.
^ar tfeta, b` ibsfoäa gaeshstb be gaestruhr uef ibehgh÷e ib` prac`bdf fgbptfc`b qub
supbrb `as gaehgtas y pa`èdhgfs (she b`hdhefr`as) qub sb pubife kbebrfr be tarea
f è`.@as prac`bdfs prbsbetfe fibdæs uef ihdbesh÷e tbdparf`. Gada chbe sböf`÷
Iawes (68;3) `as prac`bdfs ftrfvhbsfe par ue pbräaia ib dfiurfgh÷e, `a qub hd-
p`hgf qub pubibe sbr acjbta ib ftbegh÷e y ibcftb par pfrtb ib ghbrtas fgtarbs she par
b``a gaevbrthrsb be pa`äthgfdbetb shkehgfthvas. Gubsthaebs she hdpfgta gathihfea
be `f vhif ib `as ghuififeas, a ea vhegu`fias f krupas ib hetbrès gae gambsh÷e a
gfpfghifi ib frthgu`fgh÷e sughbetbs, pubibe pfsfr `frkas pbräaias she trfesoardfr -
sb be prac`bdfs qub dbrbzgfe `f ftbegh÷e par pfrtb ib` kachbrea. ^rbagupfia begubsthaebs `hkfifs f `f prac`bdæthgf fdchbetf` (qub be fqub``as föas hcf fiquhrhbe-
ia rb`bvfeghf pa`äthgf), Iawes (68;3) sukhbrb qub `as prac`bdfs shkube ue ghg`a tb
ftbegh÷e. F a frka ib bstb ghg`a, as dbihas dfshvas ib gaduehgfgh÷e jubkfe ue ra`
oueifdbetf`, fuequb ea ebgbsfrhfdbetb ibghshva.
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Ghg`a ib ftbegh÷e ib `as prac`bdfs
Oubetb: Iawes (68;3).
@f prhdbrf btfpf (fetbrhar f` prac`bdf) supaeb qub `as bxpbrtas y ghbetägas, a
heg`usa `as tadfiarbs ib ibghsh÷e, rbgaeagbe uef shtufgh÷e heibsbfc`b a uef ebgbsh-
ifi hesfthsobgmf pbra qub ea mf gfptfia fúe `f ftbegh÷e púc`hgf a b` hetbrès púc`hga
bs bsgfsa.
@f sbkueif btfpf (ibsgucrhdhbeta f`frdfetb y betushfsda buo÷rhga) hdp`hgf qub
b` tbdf sb rbgaeagb gada prac`bdf f pfrthr ib ue ibsfstrb a bvbeta dæs a dbeas he-bspbrfia qub gaeghtf `f ftbegh÷e púc`hgf y pravagf `f ibdfeif ib uef hetbrvbegh÷e
par pfrtb ib` kachbrea. Ea paibdas hkearfr, she bdcfrka, qub `as prac`bdfs pubibe
dfehobstfrsb be b` prbsbetb gae uef krfvbifi rbiughif, fue gufeia `fs tbeibeghfs
outurfs pubife heihgfr su fgrbgbetfdhbeta (`a qub vub`vb f paebr be b` gbetra ib `f
ihsgush÷e `f ihdbesh÷e tbdparf` ib `as prac`bdfs).
@f tbrgbrf btfpf (`f pbrgbpgh÷e ib` prbgha ib` prakrbsa) hdp`hgf b` gæ`gu`a ib `as
gastas y cbebghas qub hdp`hgf `f ftbegh÷e (a ea) ib` prac`bdf. Bstb gæ`gu`a ea bs
sa`a bgae÷dhga shea fibdæs saghf` y pa`äthga, pubsta qub `as prac`bdfs hdpfgtfe
dugmfs vbgbs ib oardf ibshkuf` sacrb as krupas saghf`bs (±B` prac`bdf bs ib taias
a ib ue sbkdbeta rb`fthvfdbetb dhearhtfrha1 @as pfibghdhbetas sae b` praiugta (he-
tbeghaefia a ea hetbeghaefia) ib ue gaejueta ib frrbk`as saghf`bs qub praparghaefe
cbebghas shkehgfthvas f uef dfyaräf saghf` a f uef dhearäf paibrasf).
@f gufrtf btfpf (b` ibsgbesa krfiuf` ib` hetbrès púc`hga) supaeb qub `as tbdfs
phbribe hetbeshifi gae b` pfsa ib` thbdpa, f dbeas qub mfyf fgtarbs chbe hetbrbsfias
be dfetbebr f `f `uz b` prac`bdf. Bstf pèrihif ib hetbeshifi bs praiugta ib ihvbrsasofgtarbs: f) b` pfsa ib` thbdpa, c) b` ibsæehda qub be f`kueas kbebrf `f dfkehtui
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ib` bsoubrza f rbf`hzfr, g) b` ‐fcurrhdhbeta—, be bspbghf` gufeia f`kueas juzkfe qub
b` prac`bdf phbrib sus fspbgtas dæs bdaghaefetbs y, shdu`tæebfdbetb, ue eubva
tbdf/bspbgtægu`a ``fdf su ftbegh÷e.
@f quhetf y ú`thdf btfpf (pastbrhar f` prac`bdf) bs `f qub garrbspaeib f `f pèr-
ihif ib hdpartfeghf ib` prac`bdf. Fquä `f prbkuetf rbbrb f `fs gaesbgubeghfs ib`
prac`bdf, heg`uybeia `f prbsbeghf a ea ib grhstf`hzfghaebs hesthtughaef`bs qub bdbr-
kbe f rfäz ib `f ftbegh÷e kucbrefdbetf` ib bstb.
F rfäz hdpartfeghf ib bstf ofsb rbshib be qub `f dfebrf ib ibehr b` prac`bdf gae-
ihghaef as acjbthvas qub pbrshkub y as hestrudbetas qub uth`hzf f pa`äthgf púc`hgf. Ib
bstb daia, `as krupas a fgtarbs qub ihspaebe ib gfpfghifibs sughbetbs pfrf p`fetbfr
uef ibehgh÷e fgbptfc`b ib` prac`bdf sae fqub``as qub tbrdhefe heuybeia ib dfeb-
rf ibtbrdhefetb sacrb `f ibghsh÷e< bs ibghr ‐quhbe ibeb bs quhbe ibghib—.
9. @F OASDFGH×E IB @F FKBEIF
Be bstf btfpf b` prac`bdf gaeshstb be bxp`hgfr `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs qub fsudb ‐b`
pragbsa f trfvès ib` guf` prac`bdfs y gubsthaebs ``bkfe f ``fdfr `f ftbegh÷e sbrhf y
fgthvf ib` kachbrea gada fsuetas pashc`bs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf— (Gacc, Sass y Sass,
68;?: 63?). @f hdpartfeghf ib bstb pragbsa sb ibcb, par ue `fia, f qub ‗gada yf sb
sböf`÷‗ `as prac`bdfs ea gaesthtuybe rbf`hifibs acjbthvfs shea dæs chbe gubsthaebs par ibehr y, par atra, f qub `f gfpfghifi ib ftbegh÷e ib prac`bdfs par pfrtb ib`
kachbrea bs shbdprb `hdhtfif.
Ea bstæ ibdæs fivbrthr qub ea taias `as mbgmas qub sae ibehias gada prac`b-
dfs sb trfesoardfe ebgbsfrhfdbetb be púc`hgas, pubsta qub dugmas ib b``as sae
ibehias gada prac`bdfs prhvfias. @a hdpartfetb fquä bs ibtbgtfr guæ` bs b` g÷ihka
qub pbrdhtb gf`hgfr f ue prac`bdf gada púc`hga, ihobrbeghfeia ib bsb daia `as
prac`bdfs púc`hgas ib `as prhvfias. Bstb g÷ihka bstæ gaesthtuhia, be prhdbr `ukfr,
par f gu`turf y `as vf`arbs ib uef saghbifi. Be pf`fcrfs ib Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf: ‐@b-
ybs, vf`arbs, hibfs, gadpradhsas mhst÷rhgas, ib`hdhtfe b` uehvbrsa ib as prac`bdfs f
gf`hgfr gada púc`hgas y ib gadpbtbeghf kucbrefdbetf`— (688?c: 93).
Whe bdcfrka, bsas g÷ihkas ea sae sughbetbs pfrf bxp`hgfr par què ghbrtas prac`b-
dfs fiquhbrbe b` gfrægtbr ib púc`hgas dhbetrfs atras ea. Be bobgta, fibdæs bxhstbe
fgtarbs (hetb`bgtuf`bs) qub pradubvbe f gf`hgfgh÷e ib bsas prac`bdfs gada púc`h-
gas, davh`hzfeia pfrf b``a taias `as fpayas ebgbsfrhas. Fpfrbgbe fsä gada hdpu`-
sarbs ib eubvas tbdfs, ebkaghfiarbs y grbfiarbs ib apheh÷e pfrf qub b` prac`bdff`gfegb `f ihdbesh÷e ib púc`hga. _a`vbrbdas sacrb bstb pueta dæs fib`fetb.
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Be bstf tfrbf tfdchèe bs hdpartfetb b` ra` qub ibsbdpböfe `as dbihas ib gadu-
ehgfgh÷e, pubsta qub `f hdpartfeghf y b` thbdpa qub `b pubibe atarkfr f ghbrtas pra-
c`bdfs gaesthtuyb uef fyuif sustfeghf` pfrf qub bstas `akrbe sbr gf`hgfias gada
púc`hgas. @fs prhdbrfs hevbsthkfghaebs rbf`hzfifs be `as föas sbtbetf (DgGadcs y
Wmfw, 68;3, 68;?) hetbetfrae dastrfr f pfrthr ib bstuihas ib gfsa `f hdpartfetb he-ubeghf qub `as dbihas ib gaduehgfgh÷e bjbrgäfe tfeta sacrb `f gaeoardfgh÷e ib `f
fkbeif kucbrefdbetf` gada f fkbeif púc`hgf. Whe bdcfrka, hevbsthkfghaebs pastb-
rharbs p`fetbfrae f`kuefs gräthgfs f` daib`a gfusf` qub sb hetbetfcf vf`hifr, f` rbga-
eagbr qub `fs vhegu`fghaebs betrb `as dbihas ib gaduehgfgh÷e, `as krupas ib hetbrès
y as tadfiarbs ib ibghsh÷e sae dugma dæs gadp`bjfs y qub f rb`fgh÷e betrb dbihas
y fkbeif hesthtughaef` bs ib uef heubeghf rbgäpragf (Sakbrs y Ibfrhek, 68=;)7.
@`bkfias fquä rbsu`tf úth` hetraiughr `f ihsthegh÷e rbf`hzfif par Gacc y B`ibr(68;3) betrb fkbeif shstèdhgf a púc`hgf y fkbeif kucbrefdbetf` a hesthtughaef`. Be
bobgta, dhbetrfs `f fkbeif shstèdhgf sb gadpaeb ib taias fqub``as mbgmas qub mfe
shia ibehias gada prac`bdfs púc`hgas par as dhbdcras ib f gaduehifi pa`äthgf,
`f fkbeif kucbrefdbetf` bstæ hetbkrfif sa`fdbetb par fqub``as prac`bdfs púc`hgas
qub bobgthvfdbetb mfe shia fgbptfias gada tf`bs par `as ibghsarbs ib pa`äthgf.
F su vbz, bs prbghsa sböf`fr qub ea taias `as prac`bdfs gf`hgfias gada púc`h -
gas par f saghbifi ebgbsfrhfdbetb sb hegarparfe f f fkbeif ib kachbrea y sh akrfe
sbr hegarparfias ea shbdprb sae gaeshibrfias prharhtfrhas. B` hetbrrakfetb qub sb p`fetbf fquä bs sfcbr guæ`bs sae `as ofgtarbs qub bxp`hgfe qub sa`a f`kueas pra-
c`bdfs púc`hgas hekrbsbe f `f fkbeif ib kachbrea. F`kueas futarbs (Gacc y B`ibr,
68;3< y Lhekiae, 68=9) sukhbrbe qub b` bstfc`bghdhbeta ib `f fkbeif ib kachbrea
bs ue pragbsa ibghshaef` df` bstrugturfia y gaethekbetb qub sb fsbdbjf f` daib`a
‐catb ib cfsurf— pubsta qub, fetb f sacrbgfrkf ib fsuetas y ibdfeifs pravbehbetbs
ib `f ‐fkbeif shstèdhgf—, `f sb`bggh÷e ib uef gubsth÷e gada acjbta dbrbgbiar ib
ftbegh÷e kucbrefdbetf` bs rbsu`tfia ib `f gaeubeghf ea tatf`dbetb gfsuf` pbratfdpaga prbvhshc`b ib prac`bdfs, sa`ughaebs, fgtarbs pfrthghpfetbs y apartuehifibs
ib b`bggh÷e.
Whe bdcfrka, vfrhas ofgtarbs ib gaetbxta `b atarkfe ghbrta krfia ib prbvhshch`h-
ifi f` pragbsa ib oardfgh÷e ib `f fkbeif kucbrefdbetf`, `trfeia sb`bgthvfdbetb
`as prac`bdfs y ibdfeifs pravbehbetbs ib `f saghbifi. Be prhdbr `ukfr, dathvas
7 Gadp`btfeia `f ihobrbeghfgh÷e qub rbf`hzfe Gacc y B`ibr (68;3) betrb fkbeif shstèdhgf y fkbeifhesthtughaef`, Sakbrs y Ibfrhek (68=;) fkrbkfe ue tbrgbr thpa ib fkbeif: `f fkbeif ib `as dbihas.
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hiba`÷khgas, pa`äthgas y gaesthtughaef`bs ibtbrdhefe qub `f ftbegh÷e prbstfif par b`
kachbrea sb rbstrhejf sa`a f ghbrtas prac`bdfs ib `f fkbeif shstèdhgf, f` bstfc`bgbr
ghbrtas `ädhtbs f `f `bkhthdhifi ib su hetbrvbegh÷e y f` kbebrfr uef dfyar sbeshch`h-
ifi ib` kachbrea y `fs ibpbeibeghfs kucbrefdbetf`bs par ghbrtas fsuetas y krupas
dhbetrfs qub dfyar rbshstbeghf y masth`hifi mfghf atras. Wb gaekurf fsä, sbkúe
Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf (688?f), ue pftr÷e ib ftbeihch`hifi y fgbptfch`hifi ib `as pra-
c`bdfs púc`hgas. Fshdhsda, bxhstb ue pftr÷e ib p`fushch`hifi pa`äthga fidhehstrfth-
va qub bstæ ibtbrdhefia par `f rbstrhggh÷e ib rbgursas (sgf`bs, mudfeas, `bkf`bs,
tbgea`÷khgas, darf`bs, pa`äthgas y arkfehzfghaef`bs) b hibfs qub pfibgb taia kachbr-
ea. B``a sukhbrb qub sh uef shtufgh÷e pbrghchif saghf`dbetb gada prac`bdæthgf ea sb
gaeihgb gae b` uehvbrsa ib rbspubstfs ihspaehc`bs y vhfc`bs ea tbeiræ apartuehifi
ib `fdfr `f ftbegh÷e ib` kachbrea. Ohef`dbetb, fshsthdas f f bxhstbeghf ib ue pftr÷eib rbgbpthvhifi qub ga`fcarf be `f bstfch`hzfgh÷e y aribe ib `as rbg`fdas saghf`bs.
Be bobgta, bs pashc`b qub ghbrtas prac`bdfs púc`hgas ea begubetrbe apartuehifibs
pfrf ``fdfr `f ftbegh÷e ib` kachbrea be `f dbihif qub bstb sb mf``f agupfia be fsue-
tas prbvhas a be fqub``as qub oardfe pfrtb ib `f praphf ruthef kucbrefdbetf`. Whe
bdcfrka, ghbrtfs ghrguestfeghfs a dadbetas bspbgägas (par bjbdp`a, b` gfdcha ib
g`hdf be `f apheh÷e púc`hgf, `as gfdchas praiughias be b` pfr`fdbeta qub f`tbrfe `f
garrb`fgh÷e ib oubrzfs, gfdchas be `f gaeiuggh÷e prbshibeghf` y, pfrthgu`frdbetb,
bvbetas gräthgas) pubibe gaesthtuhr uef apartuehifi praphghf fuequb ib iurfgh÷e`hdhtfif ‗ ibeadhefif pa`hgy wheiaws ‗ pfrf ibspbrtfr `f ftbegh÷e ib` kachbrea.
Fshdhsda, ghbrtfs pfrthgu`frhifibs qub prbsbetfe `as prac`bdfs púc`hgas pubibe
gaetrhcuhr f fudbetfr `fs pracfch`hifibs qub bstas thbebe ib ``fdfr `f ftbegh÷e ib
`as kachbreas. ^ar bjbdp`a, fqub``as prac`bdfs qub sae acjbta ib uef fdp`hf ftbe-
gh÷e a gaeaghdhbeta par pfrtb ib` púc`hga y rbquhbrbe f`kúe thpa ib hetbrvbegh÷e
ib f`kuef bethifi kucbrefdbetf`, fqub``as qub bstæe ibehias kbeèrhgfdbetb she
tbgehghsdas y prbsbetfe fspbgtas eubvas y ib shkehgfgh÷e pfrf krfeibs eúdbrasib `f pac`fgh÷e, y fqub``as qub bstæe iatfias ib uef oubrtb gfrkf bdaghaef` a mfe
f`gfezfia praparghaebs ib grhshs, tbeiræe dfyarbs apartuehifibs ib hekrbsfr f `f
fkbeif ib kachbrea.
Dæs f``æ ib bstas b`bdbetas beueghfias, b` ofgtar dæs hdpartfetb be `f oardf-
gh÷e ib `f fkbeif ib kachbrea ‐bs `f oubrzf ib `as fgtarbs pa`äthgas qub hetbrvhbebe
be b` pragbsa y, `fs rb`fghaebs pa`äthgfs y fidhehstrfthvfs qub mfe tbjhia betrb b``as y
gae b` kachbrea— (Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, 688?c: 99). Be bobgta, sae `as fgtarbs quhbebs
thbebe `f gfpfghifi pfrf jfr `f fkbeif kucbrefdbetf`. Whe bdcfrka, sb mfe b`fca-
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
8;
rfia ihvbrsfs tbarhzfghaebs y ibsfrra``fia praoueias ibcftbs rbspbgta f quhbebs sae
bstas fgtarbs qub pubibe ibtbrdhefr `f fkbeif ib kachbrea. Ref ib b``fs, `f garrhbe-
tb qub sb ibsprbeib ib` pbesfdhbeta dfrxhstf, sasthbeb qub `f jfgh÷e ib fkbeif bs
gaetra`fif par `fs g`fsbs iadhefetbs, yf sbf pradavhbeia sus praphas prac`bdfs a
hdphihbeia ib ihsthetfs dfebrfs `f hegarparfgh÷e ib ghbrtas prac`bdfs eaghvas fsus hetbrbsbs (@ulbs, 68=2). B` p`urf`hsda ibdagræthga, par su pfrtb, sasthbeb qub
sae `as krupas ib hetbrès quhbebs gadphtbe fchbrtfdbetb betrb sä ‗ be shtufgh÷e ib
ibshkuf`ifi ‗ par jfr `f fkbeif ib kachbrea (@heic`ad, 6888). Atrf vhsh÷e bs `f ib`
garparfthvhsda a ebagarparfthvhsda, sbkúe `f guf` sae `fs garparfghaebs `hkfifs f
`f rb`fgh÷e gfphtf`-trfcfja quhbebs thbebe f gfpfghifi pfrf gaetra`fr f oardfgh÷e ib
`f fkbeif (Wgmdhttbr, 68;8). Ref pbrspbgthvf duy ihsthetf f `fs fetbrharbs ‗pubsta
qub sae ib dftrhz sagha-gèetrhgf ‗
bs `f qub, f` rbgaeagbr f` Bstfia ghbrta krfia ibfutaeadäf, rbsf`tf `f gfpfghifi qub `fs è`htbs pa`äthga-curagræthgfs thbebe pfrf jfr
`f fkbeif ib kachbrea (Wlagpa`, 68=8). ^ar ú`thda, `f garrhbetb fidhehstrfthvhstf ‗
dæs `hkfif f` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf ‗ sasthbeb qub sae `fs rbibs (qub heg`uybe f
fgtarbs púc`hga-bstftf`bs, púc`hga-ea bstftf`bs, y prhvfias) `hkfifs f gfif uea ib `as
fsuetas be gubsth÷e ‗ -hssub ebtwarls ‗ quhbebs thbebe `f gfpfghifi ib gaetra`fr `f
oardfgh÷e ib `f fkbeif ib kachbrea (Mbg`a, 68;=).
@as fspbgtas beueghfias mfstf fquä pbrdhtbe hibethgfr f`kueas ofgtarbs qub
ibtbrdhefe b` fggbsa ib ue prac`bdf pbrghchia gada saghf`dbetb rb`bvfetb f `ffkbeif.
h) B` paibr: @f heg`ush÷e ib uef gubsth÷e be `f fkbeif bs b` rbsu`tfia ib
ue pragbsa ib gadpbtbeghf betrb fsuetas y ebgbshifibs y gaeoraetfgha-
ebs ib pbrspbgthvfs sacrb b` prac`bdf, sus gaetbehias sustfeghf`bs a `as
pragbihdhbetas fibgufias su trftfdhbeta y rbsa`ugh÷e. Bsfs gadpbtbeghfs
y gaeoraetfghaebs heva`ugrfe f fgtarbs saghf`bs gae ihobrbetbs rbgursas,
gfpfghifibs arkfehzfghaef`bs y ib kbsth÷e, fsä gada frthgu`fghaebs gae`as ædchtas hesthtughaef`bs bstfc`bghias, pbra tfdchèe f fgtarbs kucbref-
dbetf`bs y bstftf`bs. @f gaesbgubeghf ib b``a bs qub `as fgtarbs gae dæs
rbgursas ea sa`a thbebe `f gfpfghifi pfrf heubeghfr bsas pragbsas, shea
qub tfdchèe `f thbebe pfrf ibtbrdhefr `as beueghfias dhsdas ib `as pra-
c`bdfs. @f fkbeif púc`hgf ea sa`a hdpfgtf sacrb què pbesfdas fgbrgf ib
ibtbrdhefias bvbetas, shea qub tfdchèe sacrb què bvbetas pbesfdas.
hh) @as vf`arbs: @f hegarparfgh÷e ib ue prac`bdf f `f fkbeif ea rbsu`tf eb-
gbsfrhfdbetb ib uef daihgfgh÷e ib `f shtufgh÷e beorbetfif, a ib `fs rb`f-
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8=
ghaebs ib oubrzf (paibr) betrb `as fgtarbs heva`ugrfias, shea qub tfdchèe
pubib sbr b` praiugta ib uef ihobrbetb bvf`ufgh÷e ib bsf shtufgh÷e. B` gfd-
cha be `as vf`arbs sacrb f`kúe fspbgta ib `f rbf`hifi pubib gaetrhcuhr f
qub ibtbrdhefifs shtufghaebs sb prac`bdfthgbe y sb hegarparbe f `f fkbeif
shstèdhgf.hhh) @fs tbgea`akäfs: @f ihspaehch`hifi ib eubvfs tbgea`akäfs ib hetbrvbegh÷e,
pbra tfdchèe ib eubvas gaeaghdhbetas, pubib gaevbrthr f ue ædchta ib `f
rbf`hifi ea prac`bdfthzfia fetbrhardbetb be ue acjbta ib ibcftb púc`hga.
2. GAEWYSRGGH×E IB A^GHAEBW IB ^A@ÄYHGF
Wh chbe bstf btfpf, f` hkuf` qub `f shkuhbetb (tadf ib ibghsh÷e), sb fef`hzfræ gae df-
yar ibtf``b be b` gfpätu`a shkuhbetb, rbsu`tf úth` sböf`fr f`kueas fspbgtas a gubsthaebs
qub bstæe be jubka be bstf ofsb ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf. Be tèrdheas kbebrf`bs, bstf
btfpf sb garrbspaeib gae `f hibethgfgh÷e ib ihsthetas gursas ib fggh÷e y gae `f
gaestruggh÷e ib bsgbefrhas praspbgthvas qub heihqube `as marhzaetbs ib ofgthch`hifi
y fs gaesbgubeghfs pracfc`bs ib gfif uef ib fs apghaebs hibethgfifs pfrf f rbsa-
`ugh÷e ib `as prac`bdfs. Bstf bs `f btfpf ib` fef`hstf ib pa`äthgfs, be tfeta kbebrfiar
ib ue gaeaghdhbeta qub sb paeb f` sbrvhgha ib `f tadf ib ibghsh÷e.
Whe bdcfrka, gmagfe fquä ias gaegbpghaebs chbe beorbetfifs. ^ar ue `fia bs-tæe quhbebs, ibsib pfrfihkdfs pashthvhstfs, sasthbebe qub `f tfrbf ib` fef`hstf be
bstf btfpf rbdhtb f ue pragbsa ghbetäga kuhfia par grhtbrhas tègehga-hestrudbetf`bs
(bsta bs, ue feæ`hshs bstrhgtfdbetb rfghaef`). ar atra, fqub``as qub ibsib pfrfihkdfs
paspashthvhstfs sasthbebe qub b` fef`hstf bs ue ‐frtbsfea— y b` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs ue
‐frtb—. Be pf`fcrfs ib Dfjaeb (688;: =7) ‐gufeia gadpfrfdas f` fef`hstf gae b` fr-
tbsfea ea bstfdas usfeia shdp`bdbetb uef dbtæoarf: mfy uef sbdbjfezf rbf` be su
trfcfja. Be b` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs (…) b` èxhta ibpbeib dugma ib ue gaeaghdhbeta
praoueia ib `as dftbrhf`bs ib trfcfja y mbrrfdhbetfs, ib uef rb`fgh÷e duy pbrsaef`
betrb b` madcrb y su tfrbf. (…) B` bsth`a pubib ibsbdpböfr, be `f ibtbrdhefgh÷e ib`
vf`ar y `f fgbptfch`hifi ib` praiugta fef`äthga, ue pfpb` tfe hdpartfetb gada be b`
trfcfja frtbsfef`—.
Ibsib uef ÷pthgf fcsa`utfdbetb rfghaef`, `f tfrbf be bstf ofsb gaeshstb be hibeth-
gfr taifs fqub``fs f`tbrefthvfs ‗`fs ihobrbetbs pa`äthgfs y dbihas ihspaehc`bs‗ qub
pbrdhtbe rbsa`vbr bobgthvf y ibehthvfdbetb b` prac`bdf, gaeshibrfeia `as rhbskas
y/a cbebghas qub fgadpföfe f gfif uef ib b``fs. Whe bdcfrka, bstb daib`a ib
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
88
rfghaef`hifi purf a bstrhgtf mf ibdastrfia tbebr hdpartfetbs `hdhtfghaebs9, `fs qub
gaeiujbrae f futarbs gada @heic`ad (6828) f prapaebr ‗be gaetrfpashgh÷e f bsb
daib`a- b` daib`a hegrbdbetf`. Wbkúe bstb ú`thda, b` daib`a ib rfghaef`hifi bstrhg-
tf ea pubib bxp`hgfr eh ibsgrhchr b` pragbsa ib gaestruggh÷e ib apghaebs ib pa`äthgf
y ib tadf ib ibghshaebs tf` gada sb ibsfrra``f be f rbf`hifi. Be bobgta, fs apghaebsqub tadf be gubetf b` ibghsar ea sae taifs y eh shquhbrf `fs dbjarbs apghaebs shea
sa`a fqub``fs f`tbrefthvfs qub ihbrbe duy paga ib `fs pa`äthgfs ``bvfifs f gfca gae
fetbrharhifi. B``a sb ibcb f qub gufeta dæs sb f`bjb uef f`tbrefthvf ib `fs pa`äthgfs
gaeaghifs, `f fethghpfgh÷e ib sus gaesbgubeghfs b hdpfgtas (gastas y cbebghas)
rbsu`tf dæs ihgu`tasf. Ib bstb daia, b` uehvbrsa ib f`tbrefthvfs f gaeshibrfr par b`
ibghsar bs rbiughia, ihspaehbeia fibdæs ib ue dfyar krfia ib gbrthiudcrb rbspbg-
ta f `as gastas y/a cbebghas qub gfif uef ib bstfs apghaebs beghbrrf.Dæs f``æ ib bstfs gaeshibrfghaebs tb÷rhgfs, `a qub sb ibcb rbsf`tfr bs qub `as fef-
`hstfs y b` ibghsar ea apbrfe be ue bsgbefrha she rbstrhgghaebs f `f marf ib b`fcarfr
`fs apghaebs ib pa`äthgf. Be bobgta, ibcbe tadfr be gaeshibrfgh÷e be b` pragbsa ib
gaestruggh÷e ib apghaebs `as shkuhbetbs grhtbrhas: `f `bkf`hifi, `f rfghaef`hifi bga-
e÷dhgf, `f ofgthch`hifi arkfehzfghaef` y, par ú`thda, `f vhfch`hifi pa`äthgf. B` prhdbr
grhtbrha supaeb tbebr be gubetf tfeta `fs fdchkðbifibs y `fkuefs bxhstbetbs be b`
gubrpa eardfthva gada `f gambrbeghf ib` dhsda. B` sbkueia supaeb gaeshibrfr `f
vhfch`hifi bgae÷dhgf f` dadbeta ib b`fcarfr `fs f`tbrefthvfs pfrf `a guf` sb rbquhb-rb `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib ue feæ`hshs gasta-cbebgha y gasta-bobgthvhifi. B` tbrgbr grhtbrha
hdp`hgf rbgaeagbr `fs gfpfghifibs arkfehzfthvfs y ib kbsth÷e ib `fs ibpbeibeghfs
kucbrefdbetf`bs f trfvès ib ue feæ`hshs arkfehzfghaef`. B` ú`thda grhtbrha supaeb
rbf`hzfr ue feæ`hshs pa`äthga qub pbrdhtf f` ibghsar tbebr be gubetf `f vhfch`hifi pa-
`äthgf (fgbptfgh÷e a gaehgthvhifi) f `f marf ib b`fcarfr `fs f`tbrefthvfs ib pa`äthgf.
Fshdhsda, be bstf btfpf b` ibghsar ibcb tbebr g`frhifi sacrb g÷da sb vfe f jbrfr-
quhzfr gfif uea ib `as grhtbrhas beueghfias f` dadbeta ib gaestruhr `fs apghaebsib pa`äthgf< jbrfrquhzfgh÷e qub rbsu`tfræ, f su vbz, hdprbsgheihc`b pfrf `as ebs ib
hdp`bdbetfgh÷e y bvf`ufgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf ef`dbetb fiaptfif.
9 F`kuefs yf mfcäfe shia bxpubstfs par Whdae (682;) f` rbgaeagbr `f bxhstbeghf ib ghbrtas `ädhtbs
f `f fp`hgfgh÷e ib `f rfghaef`hifi bgae÷dhgf g`æshgf: `as vf`arbs, `as gastas, y `hdhtfghaebs arkfehzf-ghaef`bs, pshga`÷khgfs y shtufghaef`bs. ^ar bstf rfz÷e, b` futar sukhbrb qub b` pragbsa ib fiapgh÷e ibibghshaebs sb rhkb par b` daib`a ib rfghaef`hifi `hdhtfif.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
6>>
?. @F YADF IB @F IBGHWH×E
Wh chbe ibihgfrbdas b` pr÷xhda gfpätu`a f` feæ`hshs ib bstf btfpf, rbsu`tf apartuea
fquä mfgbr f`kuefs pagfs prbghshaebs qub prbsbetbe `fs gubsthaebs y ibcftbs hehghf-
`bs qub sb mfe kbebrfia be tarea f` feæ`hshs ib bstf ofsb ib` pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
F` hkuf` qub be `f ofsb fetbrhar, fquä sb mf p`fetbfia ue praoueia ibcftb betrb
ias pashghaebs: b` rfghaef`hsda y b` hegrbdbetf`hsda. Wbkúe `f vhsh÷e rfghaef`hstf
(daib`a ib rfghaef`hifi bstrhgtf) b` ibghsar apbrf (y ibcb apbrfr shbdprb) ib dfeb-
rf fcsa`utfdbetb rfghaef` b`hkhbeia `f dbjar ib `fs apghaebs betrb `fs f`tbrefthvfs
ihspaehc`bs, bs ibghr fqub``f qub pbrdhtb rbsa`vbr ‗ ÷pthdf y bghbetbdbetb ‗ b` pra-
c`bdf. Ibsib bstb daib`a sb supaeb, par ue `fia, qub b` ibghsar ihspaeb ib prbob-
rbeghfs g`frfs y aribefifs, acjbthvas prbghsas, heoardfgh÷e fgtuf`hzfif y acjbthvf(gaefc`b) y uef tbaräf a daib`a gfusf` væ`hia y, par atra, qub `f b`bggh÷e cusgf
dfxhdhzfr `as cbebghas y dhehdhzfr `as gastas y qub b` fprbeihzfjb sb praiugb
dbihfetb `as gastas ib` brrar.
Whe bdcfrka, sh chbe `a hibf ‗ f prharh ‗ sbräf paibr pragbibr ib fgubria f uef b`bg-
gh÷e bstrhgtfdbetb rfghaef`, bstb daib`a kbebrf`dbetb ea bs pashc`b ib sbkuhr parqub
ea sb gudp`be `fs gaeihghaebs ‗b` gaetbxta ib fggh÷e ‗ qub b` daib`a bxhkb pfrf b``a.
‐Bs `hcrbsga supaebr a bxhkhr qub ue kachbrea begfrb b` gaejueta ib `fs ibghshaebs púc`hgfs gadp`bjfs y tarefihzfs gae ue aribefdhbeta gambrbetb ib vf`arbs gaegbptuf-
`hzfias garrbgtfdbetb, qub gubetb apartuefdbetb gae taif `f heoardfgh÷e rbqubrhif,
qub gaestruyf taifs `fs apghaebs pa`äthgfs rb`bvfetbs be taifs `fs ghrguestfeghfs, qub
mfkf ue gæ`gu`a pueth``asa ib `fs gaesbgubeghfs ib sus fgtas y uef paeibrfgh÷e bx-
mfusthvf betrb `fs apghaebs y gubetb gae ue rbpbrtarha ib tbaräfs gfusf`bs gfpfgbs ib
kuhfr guf`quhbr tadf ib ibghsh÷e— (Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, 688?f: 9=).
Fshdhsda, @heic`ad (6828) sasthbeb qub fue sh sb ihbrfe bsfs gaeihghaebs ‗f`ka
qub sbkúe b` futar rbsu`tf hdpashc`b be `f dfyaräf ib `as prac`bdfs púc`hgas par sugadp`bjhifi ‗ b` daib`a ib rfghaef`hifi bstrhgtf (a dètaia ib hr f `f rfäz, gada è` `a
ibeadhef) ea `akrf bxp`hgfr b` gadpartfdhbeta rbf` ib `as ibghsarbs púc`hgas. Bs par
b``a qub, f pfrthr ib f acsbrvfgh÷e ib` gadpartfdhbeta gathihfea ib as pa hgy dflbrs,
prapaeb ue daib`a f`tbrefthva, b` hegrbdbetf`hsda (a dètaia ib `fs gadpfrfghaebs
sugbshvfs `hdhtfifs). Wbkúe bstb daib`a, b` feæ`hshs qub mfgb b` ibghsar f `f marf ib
tadfr `f ibghsh÷e ea sb rbf`hzf be fcstrfgta shea qub sb cfsf be `f pfsfif pa`äthgf fetb-
gbibetb ib daia qub `fs ibghshaebs ea sae dæs qub fjustbs dfrkhef`bs sacrb pa`äthgfsyf be dfrgmf. B``a hdp`hgf qub f pa`äthgf bs ue bs`fc÷e ib uef gfibef ib pa`äthgfs qub
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6>6
sa`a daihgf f`kueas fspbgtas ib f pa`äthgf pfsfif, be bspbghf` fqub``as fspbgtas qub
sb ibsprbeibe gada eaghvas. Ib daia qub, ifia qub ea bs pashc`b gaetfr gae uef tba-
räf gfusf` væ`hif pfrf gfif prac`bdf, sa`a sb fiaptfe pa`äthgfs qub f`tbrfe pbquböas
fspbgtas ib `f pa`äthgf fetbrhar. B` hegrbdbetf`hsda pbrdhtb fsä rbiughr `as rhbskas y
par tfeta, fue sh sb fiaptf f ibghsh÷e hegarrbgtf, bs dbjar y dæs úth` qub b` dètaia ibrfghaef`hifi bstrhgtf. Be bobgta, ‐B` daib`a hegrbdbetf` frkudbetf qub fs ibghshaebs
sae, fetb taia, prfkdæthgfs, ea sb cfsfe be rb`fghaebs gfusf`bs chbe bstuihfifs, eh be
gæ`gu`as bxmfusthvas ib gastbs y cbebghas, shea be b` dètaia ib `fs fpraxhdfghaebs
sugbshvfs y `hdhtfifs— (Yfdfya Wæbz, 688;: 38;).
F pfrthr ib bstb daib`a b`fcarfia par @heic`ad (6828) pfrf ibsgrhchr y bxp`hgfr
b` pragbsa ib tadf ib ibghshaebs, surkhbrae ias garrhbetbs qub fdp`hfrae, ibpurfrae
y berhqubghbrae f`kuefs ib sus hibfs. @f prhdbrf, rbprbsbetfif par Dfjaeb (688;),uth`hzf ‗gada sb sböf`÷ gae fetbrharhifi‗ `f hdfkbe ib` frtbsfea pfrf rbprbsbetfr `f
tfrbf ib `as b`fcarfiarbs ib pa`äthgfs, pubsta qub bstas vhvbe ghrguestfeghfs qub `b
jfe `ädhtbs y be bstb gaetbxta uth`hzfræe sus gfpfghifibs, bxpbrthsb, pfrf praiughr
pa`äthgfs qub `ubka sbræe bvf`ufifs par `f saghbifi. F rfäz ib bstf bvf`ufgh÷e qub `f
saghbifi rbf`hzf, b` kachbrea ibcb aorbgbr fibdæs rfzaebs, frkudbetas y bvhibeghfs
pfrf kbebrfr gaesbesa sacrb f pa`äthgf púc`hgf. B` prap÷shta bs atarkfr`b bkhthdhifi
f `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf sb`bgghaefif. ‐Bstfrbdas be krfe ibsvbetfjf sh, a`vhifeia b`
ibcftb y `f frkudbetfgh÷e, trftfdas ib betbeibr `f b`fcarfgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs sa`a betèrdheas ib` paibr, f heubeghf y b` rbkftba. @f frkudbetfgh÷e bs b` pragbsa oueif-
dbetf` qub shkube `as ghuififeas y `as kacbrefetbs pfrf ``bkfr f juhghas darf`bs y f
`f b`bggh÷e ib pa`äthgfs— (Dfjaeb, 688;: 7?). @f sbkueif garrhbetb ([h`ifvsly, 68;8)
p`fetbf qub `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf ea bs rbsu`tfia ib uef hdpashgh÷e shea ue praiugta
qub rbsu`tf ib `f ebkaghfgh÷e, ib ue pragbsa ib hetbrfggh÷e saghf` y pa`äthgf, betrb
`as krupas ib hetbrès dæs rb`bvfetbs, `as fgtarbs bstf`bs y b` kachbrea2. ^ar tfeta,
`f tfrbf dæs hdpartfetb gaeshstb be gaduehgfr `f pa`äthgf y gaevbegbr f `as krupasrhvf`bs. Gada pubib fivbrthrsb, b` pueta qub ueb f fdcfs garrhbetbs bs `f ibghihif
hdpartfeghf qub `b atarkfe f` dadbeta gaduehgfghaef` pbra sb ihobrbeghfe be qub
`f prhdbrf rbsf`tf b` gadpaebetb frtbsfef` be `f b`fcarfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf, dhbetrfs
`f sbkueif rbsf`tf b` gadpaebetb pa`äthga.
2 Be bstb bsqubdf, b` kachbrea bs ue fgtar dæs qub pubib fiaptfr ihvbrsas ra`bs: ue ra` gaegh`hfiarsh sb begubetrf be uef shtufgh÷e ib supbrharhifi y ue ra` paga rb`bvfetb sh sb begubetrf be gaeihghaebsib ibch`hifi.
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6>3
;. @F HD^@BDBEYFGH×E IB @F ^A@ÄYHGF
Bstf mf shia uef ib `fs btfpfs tf` vbz dbeas bstuihfifs pubsta qub ibsib sus ga-
dhbezas y mfstf hehghas ib `as föas ;> `f hevbsthkfgh÷e be b` gfdpa ib `fs ghbeghfs
ib pa`äthgfs bstuva gbetrfif be `f ibghsh÷e y `fs btfpfs qub `f prbpfrfe (fetbgbibe).@f garrhbetb iadhefetb be fqub``as föas sastbeäf qub pfrf `akrfr ue cube rbsu`tfia
sa`a brf ebgbsfrha dbjarfr `f gf`hifi fef`äthgf b heoardfthvf ib `f ibghsh÷e (bsta bs,
`as daib`as gfusf`bs hdp`äghtas be b``fs). Bstb èeofshs be `a ibghshaef` sb cfsfcf be
`f g`æshgf ihgatadäf betrb pa`äthgf y fidhehstrfgh÷e, iaeib `f pa`äthgf brf b` bspfgha
ib `f ibghsh÷e dhbetrfs qub `f fidhehstrfgh÷e brf b` bspfgha ib `f fp`hgfgh÷e. Ib-
træs ib bstf ihgatadäf bxhstäfe ias hdpartfetbs supubstas. B` prhdbra supaeäf uef
fidhehstrfgh÷e púc`hgf praobshaef` y sucarihefif f` paibr pa`äthga ([bcbr, 6883),
y b` sbkueia `f bxhstbeghf ib uef saghbifi pfshvf she gfpfghifi pfrf acstfgu`hzfr ahdpbihr `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
Whe bdcfrka, f pfrthr ib hehghas ib `as föas ;> gadhbezf f fpfrbgbr ue dfyar
hetbrès be `a pasibghshaef . B``a sb ibch÷ f qub gadbez÷ f pbrghchrsb qub as orfgfsas
ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs rbshiäfe be dugmfs agfshaebs be `f btfpf ib fp`hgfgh÷e a
hdp`bdbetfgh÷e y ea be `f ibghsh÷e.
;.6. @f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e gada prac`bdf@f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e rbbrb f` gaejueta ib fgghaebs y gadpartfdhbetas qub pbrdhtbe
trfesoardfr `fs hetbeghaebs u acjbthvas ib uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf be praiugtas, rbsu`-
tfias b hdpfgtas acsbrvfc`bs. Bs par b``a qub ea pubib sbr gaegbchif sa`a gada ue
dadbeta, shea qub ibcb sbr betbeihif gada ue pragbsa gadp`bja f trfvès ib` guf`
`as ihvbrsas fgtarbs heva`ugrfias paebe be dfrgmf ‗hetbeghaef`dbetb ‗ `f gaebxh÷e
gfusf` grhstf`hzfif be b` ihsböa ib `f pa`äthgf. Wh iurfetb b` pragbsa sb prbsbetfe
ibobgtas y f pa`äthgf suorb hegudp`hdhbetas ihgma väegu`a sb ‐ibstruyb—, gaeiughbe-ia f` orfgfsa ib `f pa`äthgf. Iurfetb b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e sb dfehbstfe
ghbrtfs rbstrhgghaebs (qub pravhbebe ib `as dfeiftas, rbk`fs, rbgursas ihspaehc`bs y
gaethekbeghfs ‗bs ibghr, bvbetas hebspbrfias ‗ ) y ihvbrsfs pbrgbpghaebs ib `f rbf`h-
ifi (kbebrf`dbetb be gaehgta), `as pfrthghpfetbs rbhetbrprbtfe `fs hetbeghaebs ib
`fs pa`äthgfs y ibsp`hbkfe vfrhfifs bstrftbkhfs ib heubeghf/heghibeghf, bdbrkhbeia
hegbrthiudcrbs ib taia thpa.
@f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e supaeb uef gfibef ib sugbsas qub sb hehghf gufeia sb
praiugb `f sfegh÷e ib `f ibghsh÷e y qub gaeg`uyb gufeia `f beueghfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf (su bxprbsh÷e be prakrfdfs, rbku`fghaebs y fgthvhifibs) bs fcfeiaefif,
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
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ef`hzfif a trfesoardfif. Bs par bsf rfz÷e qub `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e sub`b tbebr
ue gadhbeza prbghsa, pbra thbeb shbdprb ue ef` ihousa, pubs bstb rbdhtb tfeta
f` hdpfgta sacrb `f saghbifi gada f su hedbrsh÷e be b` pragbsa gaestfetb ib
rboardu`fgh÷e y rbvhsh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs.
Whe bdcfrka, fqub``f sbgubeghf ib sugbsas ea bs `hebf`. Bstæ gadpubstf par ib-ghshaebs y fgghaebs hetbrrb`fghaefifs, gae heubeghf rbgäpragf. F``ä sb praiugb `f
gaeoraetfgh÷e ib hebvhtfc`bs tbeshaebs, fdchkðbifibs y gaehgtas qub mfgbe qub
b` ibsfrra``a bobgthva ib `fs fgghaebs shkf sbeibras dugmfs vbgbs f`bjfias ib `fs
prbvhshaebs gaetbehifs be b` ihsböa ib `fs pa`äthgfs. Be bobgta, iurfetb b` pragbsa
sb ibcbe rbsa`vbr gaehgtas betrb `a prbvhsta y `a gaethekbetb, betrb `a oardf`hzfia
y ruthehzfia y `as rbquhshtas qub hdpaeb gfif shtufgh÷e bspbgägf, betrb `as juhghas
ib vf`ar y `fs gaeshibrfghaebs tègehgfs, betrb `fs pashch`hifibs y `fs rbstrhgghaebs,betrb `as dfeiftas ib `f jbrfrquäf pa`äthgf y `fs ibdfeifs qub pravhbebe ib `as cb-
ebghfrhas ib `fs prbstfghaebs y sbrvhghas qub `f pa`äthgf aorbgb. Be sudf, `f hdp`b-
dbetfgh÷e supaeb hetraiughrsb be b` dueia dæs heghbrta y rbshstbetb ib rbf`hifibs
saghf`bs grhstf`hzfifs, bsgfsbz ib rbgursas, rb`fghaebs ib paibr, gaehgtas ib vf`arbs
y grbbeghfs, rbshstbeghfs, rbtrfhdhbeta y pfshvhifi.
@as sbeibras ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e rbsu`tfe ib rbspubstfs f ibsfoäas y prbshaebs,
ib gaethekbeghfs y ib gfdchas ib arhbetfghaebs y ib `fs hetbrfgghaebs betrb fgtarbs
bstrftèkhgas. Fquä jubkfe ue pfpb` gbetrf` `as fidhehstrfiarbs púc`hgas y `fs arkf-ehzfghaebs púc`hgfs, pubsta qub gaestfetbdbetb mfgbe fprbghfghaebs sacrb `fs shtuf-
ghaebs/rbf`hifibs beorbetfifs, rbibehbeia pfrghf`dbetb (be b` dbjar ib `as gfsas)
`fs prharhifibs ib `fs pa`äthgfs. ^bra sus gadpartfdhbetas ea sa`a f tbrfe `as gursas
ib fggh÷e, shea qub tfdchèe daihgfe b` gaetbxta ib apbrfgh÷e, betfc`feia f`hfe-
zfs, oartf`bghbeia f f`kueas fgtarbs saghf`bs, kbebrfeia bxpbgtfthvfs y ibdfeifs y
grbfeia `f hdfkbe púc`hgf ib `f pa`äthgf.
Wh `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e bs uef gfibef ib fgghaebs y ibghshaebs qub pravagfe bobg-tas qub f `f vbz hdpfgtfe sacrb fgghaebs y ibghshaebs, pubib frdfrsb betaegbs
qub bs ue pragbsa ‐rbbxhva—. B``a supaeb qub `as qub hetbrvhbebe be ihgma pragbsa
ibcbe hegarparfr heoardfgh÷e, hetraiughr`f be sus dfpfs gakehthvas y dfrgas gae-
gbptuf`bs fsä gada pragbsfr`f y bvf`ufr`f, trfesoardfeia `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e be: f)
ue pragbsa ib fprbeihzfjb, yf qub ibcb rbvhsfrsb pbrdfebetbdbetb `f vf`hibz ib
ihgmas dfrgas gaegbptuf`bs, c) ue pragbsa bva`uthva, ifia qub pubib supaebr fgu-
du`fgh÷e, dfiurfgh÷e y trfesoardfghaebs, y g) ue pragbsa ib grbfgh÷e ib rbgursas
y ibsp`hbkub ib gaf`hghaebs, yf qub iurfetb b` pragbsa sb pragurf sudfr eubvfsva`uetfibs y fimbshaebs.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6>2
be su shkehgfgh÷e pa`äthgf y saghf`, dæs qub be fgthvhifibs vhegu`fifs f uef pa`äthgf
a f ue prakrfdf. Gfif uef ib bstfs arkfehzfghaebs bstæ f gfrka ib dæs ib ue fspbg-
ta ib ihvbrsfs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, `as qub hetbrfgtúfe y sb gaeihghaefe dutufdbetb.
Wus fgghaebs bstæe sujbtfs f rbstrhgghaebs hesthtughaef`bs y su `÷khgf hetbref ``bvf f
qub pragurbe gaegh`hfr `as rbqubrhdhbetas ib `fs pa`äthgfs gae sus gfpfghifibs ar-kfehzfghaef`bs. Ib bstf oardf ea sb gaeghcb f `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e gada b` rbsu`tfia
ib uef beueghfgh÷e ib prap÷shtas, shea gada `f gaevbrkbeghf ib ue gaejueta ib
ibghshaebs y ib ÷khgfs arkfehzfghaef`bs qub vfe gaegrbtfeia rbsu`tfias b hdpfgtas.
Wu bjb ea bs par `a tfeta `f bghbeghf, shea `fs gaesbgubeghfs. Whe bdcfrka, b` ibsf-
rra``a ib bstb gfdpa ihsghp`hefrha mf pubsta ib dfehbsta `f bxhstbeghf ib beoaqubs
y pbrspbgthvfs ib feæ`hshs ihsthetfs.
Ibetra ib `f prhdbrf kbebrfgh÷e ib tb÷rhgas ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e, [h`ifvslyy ^rbssdfe (68;7) sasthbebe qub `as prac`bdfs ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e? sb kbebrfe f
rfäz ib `f bxgbshvf gadp`bjhifi ib `f fggh÷e gaejuetf (gaapbrfgh÷e) qub bs ebgbsfrhf
pfrf `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e bxhtasf ib uef pa`äthgf. Be bobgta, ‐@f gadp`bjhifi ib `f
ga-apbrfgh÷e bs b` ibtbrdhefetb ib qub ea sugbife a sugbife oubrf ib tèrdhea y
she hdpfgta `fs fgghaebs qub brf prbvhshc`b y bspbrfc`b sugbihbrfe, ifia qub brfe
gaekrubetbs gae `fs gaeihghaebs hehghf`bs, par taias fgbptfifs she rbpfra— (Fkuh`fr
_h``feubvf, 688?g: 98). B``a sugbib pubsta qub be bstf btfpf hetbrvhbebe dú`thp`bs
fgtarbs y parqub, fibdæs, taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf supaeb f bxhstbeghf ib ihsthetas pue-tas ib ibghsh÷e ibetra ib f ofsb ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e. ar tfeta, ifia qub be gfif uea
ib bsas puetas ib ibghsh÷e hetbrvhbebe dú`thp`bs fgtarbs, pfrf qub `f pa`äthgf tbekf
èxhta bs ebgbsfrha kbebrfr ue gaesbesa be gfif pueta ib ibghsh÷e qub pbrdhtf paibr
pfsfr f` shkuhbetb. B` prac`bdf bstæ betaegbs be b` bxgbsa ib puetas ib ibghsh÷e y
be `f gfethifi ib fgtarbs qub hetbrvhbebe be gfif uea ib b``as. Be bstb bsgbefrha, `f
g`fvb pfrf `f sa`ugh÷e ib` prac`bdf bstæ be b` ihsböa ib` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e,
cusgfeia rbiughr ea sa`a b` eúdbra ib puetas ib ibghsh÷e shea fibdæs b` eúdbra ibfgtarbs hetbrvhehbetbs be b` pragbsa.
Atra futar, pbrtbebghbetb f bstf prhdbrf kbebrfgh÷e ib tb÷rhgas, qub sb ibthbeb
f fef`hzfr `as prac`bdfs ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e bs Cfrifgm (68=>). Wbkúe bstb futar, b`
pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e bs ue pragbsa ib besfdc`fjb iaeib dú thp`bs fgtarbs he-
? Wbkúe bstas futarbs, sa`a paibdas mfc`fr ib prac`bdfs ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e gufeia, f pbsfr ib qubsb mfe `akrfia `fs gaeihghaebs hehghf`bs y `f tbaräf gfusf` bs garrbgtf, `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e sb rbtrfsf aorfgfsf be sus acjbthvas.
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6>?
ibpbeihbetbs betrb sä pasbbe rbgursas cæshgas pfrf b` praiugta ef`. Bstas fgtarbs
jubkfe ihsthetas jubkas ib ebkaghfgh÷e/trfesfggh÷e qub ef`dbetb sb vfe f trfesoar -
dfr be jubkas ib gaefezf. B` prac`bdf sb prbsbetf parqub bstas jubkas ihstarshaefe
`as acjbthvas qub prbtbeib f`gfezfr `f pa`äthgf, gaeiugbe f` ibsph`ofrra ib rbgursas,
daihgfe pragbsas b hestrudbetas, be säetbshs ibsvhrtúfe `f pa`äthgf. ^frf sf`vfr bstas
prac`bdfs bs ebgbsfrha betaegbs rbf`hzfr uef cubef ibsgrhpgh÷e ib` bsgbefrha ib `f
hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ‗ gaeagbr quhbebs sae `as fgtarbs qub hetbrvhbebe, què hetbrbsbs thb-
ebe y què rbgursas pasbbe ‗ gae b` prap÷shta ib fethghpfr bsas jubkas y bvhtfr fsä qub
`f pa`äthgf púc`hgf sb ibsväb. Whe bdcfrka, b``a ea bs sughbetb pfrf kfrfethzfr b` èxhta
ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e y, par tfeta, sb ibcb rbgurrhr f ue xbr (rbpfrfiar), bs ibghr ue
`hibrfzka gadpradbthia gae b` èxhta ib uef ibtbrdhefif pa`äthgf, qub frchtrb bstas
jubkas. Be bobgta, ‐B` dbihfiar-rbpfrfiar-fjustfiar pasbb ue krfe gfphtf` ib rbgursas pa`äthgas \...T y bs gfpfz ib gaevagfr f `fs pfrtbs darasfs a gaehghthvfs, sbetfr`fs f
ebkaghfr, ihsufihr apashtarbs, ibrratfr fivbrsfrhas, sudfr gaesbesas, ftrfbr gaetrhcu-
ghaebs, ibrrhcfr acstægu`as— (Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, 688?g: ;?).
@f sbkueif kbebrfgh÷e ib tb÷rhgas ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e (Cbrdfe, 68;=, 68=><
B`darb, 68;=, 68=>< @hpsly, 68=>< [h``hfds, 68=>, 68=3< betrb `as dæs hdpartfetbs)
sastuva, par su pfrtb, qub `as prac`bdfs ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf
bstæe be b` pueta ú`thda ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e, be `f prbstfgh÷e ib` sbrvhgha, bs ibghr
be b` pbrsaef` ib vbetfeh``f a be b` pbrsaef` ib gaetfgta. ^frf sf`vfr bstb prac`bdfmfy qub ihsböfr b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib fcfja mfghf frrhcf. ^ar tfeta, mfy
qub pbesfr be guf`bs sae `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs a ftrhcughaebs qub ibcb tbebr bsb pbr-
saef` ib gaetfgta pfrf prbstfr ue sbrvhgha ib gf`hifi, pfrf sfthsofgbr f` usufrha. F
pfrthr ib fquä bs qub mfy qub pbesfr `fs fgghaebs prbvhfs ebgbsfrhfs pfrf actbebr uef
hdp`bdbetfgh÷e bxhtasf.
B` fpartb ib bstas tb÷rhgas rbshib be qub radpbe gae `f hibf curagræthgf y jbrær-
quhgf ib `f fidhehstrfgh÷e púc`hgf, pubsta qub ibsgucrbe qub bs ebgbsfrha atarkfrfutaeadäf f `f curagrfghf pfrf kbebrfr `fs gaeihghaebs ebgbsfrhfs pfrf crheifr ue
sbrvhgha ib gf`hifi (Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, 688?f). B` bsqubdf dfeia-gaetra` gbib
fquä su `ukfr f ue bsqubdf ib rbspaesfch`hzfgh÷e. Bstas futarbs vfe f bstfc`bgbr fsä
uef ihsthegh÷e betrb dfgra hdp`bdbetfgh÷e y dhgra hdp`bdbetfgh÷e f pfrthr ib `f
guf` vfe f ihobrbeghfr betrb hdp`bdbetfgh÷e prakrfdfif b hdp`bdbetfgh÷e fifp-
tfthvf. @a qub bstas futarbs prbtbeibe sucrfyfr bs qub `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e prakrf-
dfif sa`a bs pashc`b cfja gaeihghaebs ib rbquhshtas uehvbrsf`bs a gaeihghaebs qub
sb rbphtbe ib hkuf` dfebrf. Whe bdcfrka, gufeia bstfs gaeihghaebs ea sb prbsbetfe
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mfy qub rbgurrhr f uef hdp`bdbetfgh÷e fifptfthvf. Bstb thpa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e (`f
fifptfthvf) rbquhbrb ib ue eubva thpa ib oueghaefrha qub ea sb pfrbgb be efif f
fqub` cur÷grftf trfihghaef` qub sb rhkb par rbk`fs. B``a ea shkehgf qub f hdp`bdbe-
tfgh÷e fifptfthvf supaekf uef fusbeghf ib prakrfdfgh÷e shea qub, par b` gaetrfrha,
supaeb ue prakrfdf qub atarkf ghbrtf futaeadäf f` oueghaefrha pfrf fifptfr`a f `asihvbrsas gfsas y gaetbxtas ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e.
Ohef`dbetb f pfrthr ib `as föas => surkbe `as prhdbras hetbetas ib rbgaegh`hfr
`as supubstas y vf`arbs qub bstæe ibtræs ib bstfs ias oardfs (tap-iawe y cattad
up) ib gaegbchr b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e (B`darb, 68=2< Kakkhe, 68=?< Wf-
cfthbr, 68=?< Kakkhe, Cawdfe, @bstbr y A‘Yaa`b, 688>). Ref pashch`hifi ib rb-
gaegh`hfgh÷e rbshib be `f gaestruggh÷e ib dfrgas gaegbptuf`bs shetèthgas f pfrthr
ib b`bdbetas sb`bgghaefias ib gfif uea ib `as beoaqubs, frthgu`feia ‐`as dbja-rbs rfskas a gfrfgtbrästhgfs ib gfif beoaqub— (Wfcfthbr, 68=?: 7;). Ib bstb daia
sb rbgaeagb ea sa`a qub `fs gaegbpghaebs ea sae ebgbsfrhfdbetb bxg`uybetbs
shea qub bs ebgbsfrha ibsfrra``fr ue dfrga gaegbptuf` qub pbrdhtf hetbkrfr `fs
iäfifs jbrfrquäf-gaetra` (praphfs ib` daib`a tap iawe) y fifptfgh÷e-futaeadäf
(ihsthethvfs ib` daib`a cattad up). Wbkúe B`darb (68=2) `as tadfiarbs ib ibgh-
sh÷e ebgbshtfe gaeshibrfr tfeta `as hestrudbetas ib pa`äthgf y `as atras rbgursas
f su ihspashgh÷e ( oarwfri dfpphek) gada `f bstrugturf ib hegbethvas ib `fs pa-
c`fghaebs acjbthva (cfglwfri dfpphek), parqub b` èxhta ib `f pa`äthgf ibpbeibib fdcas b`bdbetas.
;. 7. @fs pbrspbgthvfs pfrf b` feæ`hshs ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e
Wb mfe ibsfrra``fia trbs pbrspbgthvfs cæshgfs gae rbspbgta f f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e. Ref
ib b``fs bs ib efturf`bzf prbsgrhpthvf, fs atrfs ias pragurfe gadprbeibr fs gadp`b-
jhifibs qub gfrfgtbrhzfe f` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e.
B` beoaqub prbsgrhpthva
Bstb beoaqub pragurf hibethgfr `fs gaeihghaebs ebgbsfrhfs pfrf uef fibgufif
hdp`bdbetfgh÷e. B``fs sb sub`be rbsudhr be: f) bspbghgfgh÷e ib acjbthvas y dbtfs,
c) fshkefgh÷e prbghsf ib ftrhcughaebs y rbspaesfch`hifibs, g) prakrfdfgh÷e y bstæe-
ifrbs ib apbrfgh÷e sughbetbs, i) rbgursas fibgufias, b) fpaya y gaeiuggh÷e pa`ä-
thgf. Wbkúe Kuee (68;=) `fs prbgaeihghaebs pfrf uef hdp`bdbetfgh÷e bxhtasf sae:
h) Vub `fs ghrguestfeghfs bxtbrefs f `f fkbeghf ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ea hdpaekfe
acstægu`as (oäshgas a pa`äthgas) f `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e.
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hh) Vub b` prakrfdf gubetb gae `as rbgursas sughbetbs y b` thbdpa fibgufia
pfrf rbf`hzfr sus acjbthvas.
hhh) Vub be gfif uef ib `fs btfpfs ib` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e `f gadch-
efgh÷e ib rbgursas (ea sa`a bgae÷dhgas) rbqubrhif pfrf b` èxhta ib `f pa`äthgf bstè
ihspaehc`b be b` dadbeta fibgufia.
hv) Vub bxhstf uef tbaräf gfusf` væ`hif sacrb `f qub sb fpayf `f pa`äthgf.
v) Vub `f rb`fgh÷e betrb gfusf y bobgta sbf `a dæs ihrbgtf pashc`b, bs ibghr, gae b`
dbear eúdbra ib rb`fghaebs pashc`b.
vh) Vub `f fkbeghf hdp`bdbetfiarf ea ebgbshtb ibpbeibr ib atrfs fkbeghfs pfrf
kfrfethzfr b` èxhta ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e, a qub sh hetbrvhbebe dugmfs arkfehzfgha-
ebs bsf ibpbeibeghf sbf däehdf tfeta be eúdbra gada be hdpartfeghf.
vhh) Vub bxhstf uef gadp`btf gadprbesh÷e y fgubria be tarea f `as acjbthvas ib `f
pa`äthgf y qub bstfs gaeihghaebs pbrshstfe f `a `frka ib` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e.
vhhh) Vub sb ibtf``be `fs tfrbfs qub ibcbe rbf`hzfr gfif uea ib `as pfrthghpfetbs
pfrf f`gfezfr `as acjbthvas ib `f pa`äthgf.
hx) Vub bxhstf uef pbrobgtf gaduehgfgh÷e betrb, y gaarihefgh÷e ib, `as ihsthetas
fgtarbs a fkbeghfs heva`ugrfias be b` prakrfdf.x) Vub fqub``as qub pasbbe `f futarhifi pubife ibdfeifr (gfpfghifi) y actbebr
(bobgthvhifi) acbihbeghf ib sus sucarihefias.
Bstb beoaqub rbdhtb f f prac`bdæthgf ib` p`febfdhbeta, su bspbghgfgh÷e be pra-
krfdfs apbrfthvas, `f prbsupubstfgh÷e y f `f garrbspaeibeghf betrb `as rbqubrhdhbe-
tas ib `fs tfrbfs y b` krfia ib ihsgrbghaef`hifi fgarifia pfrf su bjbgugh÷e. Gae-
oardb f bstb beoaqub, `as oueghaefrhas y apbrfiarbs ea ibcbräfe oardu`fr juhghas
hetbrprbtfthvas ib `fs pa`äthgfs: `f fidhehstrfgh÷e bs ue hestrudbeta ebutra gae rbs-
pbgta f fs arhbetfghaebs pa`äthgfs. Fqub``fs gaeihghaebs ebgbsfrhfs ibcbräfe crheifr
taifs `fs arhbetfghaebs rbqubrhifs pfrf `f rbsa`ugh÷e ib taifs `fs bvbetuf`hifibs qub
sb beorbetbe. Bs `f bxprbsh÷e ib` daib`a rfghaef`-ibiugthva ib tadf ib ibghshaebs
y ib` thpa hibf` curagræthga ib arkfehzfgh÷e gada pftraebs eardfthvas. Ibsib bstf
pbrspbgthvf, b` pbrobgghaefdhbeta ib `as pragbsas ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e sb `akrf f trf-
vès ib `f daihgfgh÷e ib `as dfrgas ib `f fggh÷e: uef dæs prbghsf ibehgh÷e ib `f
‐rbk`f ib `f `by—, pbrobgghaefdhbeta ib shstbdfs ib p`febfdhbeta y prakrfdfgh÷e,
gfdcha ib pragbihdhbetas, dbgfehsdas ib gaetra` ib pragbsas y gadpartfdhbetas,betrb `as dæs hdpartfetbs.
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B` beoaqub ib` pragbsa saghf`
^frf bstb beoaqub `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e gaesthtuyb `f bsbeghf ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
Bs `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e `f qub bobgthvfdbetb ibtbrdhef `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf, yf qub ib
b``f ibpbeib su hdpfgta sacrb `f saghbifi. @f pa`äthgf sbräf, ib bstb daia, `f sudf-
tarhf ib taias `as gadpartfdhbetas púc`hgas be tarea f uef prac`bdæthgf bspbgägf.
@f ibehgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf fsaghfif f` pragbsa ib tadf ib ibghsh÷e sa`a gaesthtuhräf
uef ibg`frfgh÷e ib hetbeghaebs. ^ar tfeta, b` prac`bdf ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ea rb-
shib be fsbkurfr qub quhbebs hdp`bdbetfe sb ‐fjustbe— f` p`fe ib fggh÷e bstfc`bghia
(b` bstftuta ib `f pa`äthgf) shea be qub b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e sb pubif f`gfe-
zfr ue däehda gaesbesa be tarea f `fs dbtfs, ibsfrra``fr ghbrtfs `bf`tfibs hesthtu-
ghaef`bs y pradavbr ue krfia ib gadpradhsa ib quhbebs pfrthghpfe be f hdp`bdbe-
tfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf gae b` p`fe ib fggh÷e ib oardf ib arhbetfr `f uth`hzfgh÷e ib `asdærkbebs ib futaeadäf heihvhiuf`.
Be bstb beoaqub b` èeofshs bstæ pubsta be b` paibr, be `fs vhshaebs y pbrspbgth-
vfs, be `as hdpfgtas y be `f pfrthghpfgh÷e saghf`. Be bstb pragbsa `as oueghaefrhas
rbhetbrprbtfe `fs ihrbgthvfs, fifptfe `fs rbspubstfs, kbebrfe eubvas pragbihdhbe-
tas y ‐gadp`btfe `fs `fkuefs— ib `f pa`äthgf. Gada gaesbgubeghf ib b``a `as oue-
ghaefrhas pubibe ihspaebr ib dærkbebs ib futaeadäf, gufeia ea ib ihsgrbghaef`h-
ifi, sacrb gubsthaebs gada `f sb`bggh÷e ib `as ibstheftfrhas a sacrb `f bxhch`hifi
ib `f eardf. Yfe hdpartfetb pubib sbr bstb pfpb` qub @hpsly (68=>) sasthbeb qub`f pa`äthgf sb gaestruyb ‐f` ehvb` ib `f gf``b—, `a qub ac`hkf f gaeshibrfr a bvf`ufr
`f heubeghf qub ghbrtas fspbgtas ‐gu`turf`bs— ib `f arkfehzfgh÷e thbebe sacrb sus
gadpartfdhbetas y, par beib, sacrb `fs gaesbgubeghfs (rbsu`tfias b hdpfgtas) qub
`f pa`äthgf praiugb.
@f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e bva`uthvf
Wbkúe bstb tbrgbr beoaqub `as p`febs ib fggh÷e ea sae eh dbrfs pf`fcrfs qub sae
daihgfifs iurfetb b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e eh p`febs ibtf``fias y rhkurasasqub pbrdhtbe fsbkurfr uef hdp`bdbetfgh÷e gaetra`fif. @as p`febs ib fggh÷e bxhstbe
sa`a gada pashch`hifibs, guyf rbf`hzfgh÷e ibpbeib ib guf`hifibs heträesbgfs gada
ib b`bdbetas bx÷kbeas. Bs par b``a qub `as futarbs qub fquä sb hesgrhcbe (Dfjaeb
y [h`ifvsly, 68;=) p`fetbfe `f ebgbshifi ib rbgaeagbr b` dutua gaeihghaefdhbeta
betrb `fs pa`äthgfs (su bstftuta) y `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e. Ib bstf oardf:
h) @f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e gaekurf `fs pa`äthgfs: @fs pa`äthgfs sae trfesoardf-
ifs (rb-ihsböfifs) iurfetb b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e. Bstf trfesoardf-
gh÷e bs ebgbsfrhf pfrf fifptfr `f pa`äthgf f` gaetbxta ib rbstrhgghaebs hesth-
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tughaef`bs, gaetbxtuf`bs, qub surkbe iurfetb bstb pragbsa y qub ea oubrae
(eh paiäfe sbr) prbvhstfs be `f ofsb ib ihsböa a p`fehgfgh÷e.
hh) @fs pa`äthgfs gaekurfe `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e: @fs oardfs be qub `fs pa`ä-
thgfs gaeihghaefe `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e sae cfstfetb ihvbrsfs: f) f trfvès ib`
daib`a gfusf` qub `f pa`äthgf prbsupaeb, praparghaefeia `f heoardfgh÷esacrb `fs sbgubeghfs ib fgghaebs qub ibcbe kuhfr `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e y c)
f trfvès ib` gaetbehia, ib`hdhtfeia b` ædchta iaeib thbeb `ukfr b` pragbsa
ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e, ibtbrdhefeia quhbebs sae `as qub pfrthghpfe be è`, fsä
gada f rb`fgh÷e (gaehgthvf a ea) betrb fquè``as, ibehbeia as hestrudbe-
tas ihspaehc`bs pfrf `f fggh÷e, y sudhehstrfeia `as rbgursas pfrf ``bvfr f
gfca f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e.
^frf bstf pbrspbgthvf, f` hkuf` qub pfrf `f fetbrhar, `f futaeadäf, b heg`usa f vbgbs`f ihsgrbghaef`hifi, ib quhbebs hdp`bdbetfe ea sa`a bs hebvhtfc`b (par `f hdpashch`h-
ifi ib prbvbr bxmfusthvfdbetb taifs `fs shtufghaebs y gaetbxtas be `as qub sb bjbgutf
uef pa`äthgf) shea qub bs sacrb taia ibsbfc`b. B``a sb ibcb f qub b` bsgbefrha ib hd-
p`bdbetfgh÷e bs ue bsgbefrha iheædhga, heghbrta, sujbta f `fs gaethekbeghfs y iaeib f
heoardfgh÷e ihspaehc`b bs `hdhtfif y b` thbdpa pfrf fiaptfr uef pa`äthgf ue rbgursa
bsgfsa. Be bstfs ghrguestfeghfs, qub quhbebs hdp`bdbetfe ihspaekfe ib ue dfrkbe
futaeadäf/ihsgrbghaef`hifi pubib sbr ibghshva pfrf kfrfethzfr b` ‐èxhta— ib f pa`äthgf
púc`hgf. B` èxhta ib `fs pa`äthgfs (y par tfeta ib su hdp`bdbetfgh÷e) ibpbeib ea sa aib` sfcbr què mfgbr (rbk`fs g`frfs y prbghsfs) shea dæs prbghsfdbetb ib` sfcbr g÷da
mfgbr`a (`f gfpfghifi ib sb`bgghaefr `as gadpartfdhbetas fibgufias).
;.9. B` èxhta ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e
@fs heeudbrfc`bs hevbsthkfghaebs qub sb mfe rbf`hzfia be b` gfdpa ib `as bstuihas
ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e iurfetb `as ú`thdas trbhetf föas ``bkfrae f f`kuefs gaeg`ushaebs
hdpartfetbs rbspbgta f guæ`bs sae `as ofgtarbs (a gaeihghaebs) dæs rb`bvfetbs qub pubibe fudbetfr `fs pracfch`hifibs ib èxhta be `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf
púc`hgf. Betrb bstfs gfcb dbeghaefr `fs shkuhbetbs:
Sfzaefch hifi ib `f pa`äthgf. Wb rbbrb f `f pbrthebeghf ib` daib`a gfusf` qub bstæ
hdp`äghta be f pa`äthgf: bsta bs, f garrbspaeibeghf a fibgufgh÷e betrb `fs gfusf`hifibs
pastu`fifs par `f pa`äthgf y fqub``fs qub bobgthvfdbetb apbrfe be `f rbf`hifi. Wh `fs
mhp÷tbshs gfusf`bs qub `fs pa`äthgfs supaebe bstæe cfsfifs be gaeaghdhbetas prbgfrhas
a paga pracfias, a sh ea sae rb`bvfetbs pfrf b` thpa ib prac`bdfs qub `f pa`äthgf sb prapaeb beorbetfr, f hdp bdbetfgh÷e ea pairæ rbsa`vbr b` prac`bdf púc`hga f trftfr.
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@bkhthdhifi ib `f pa`äthgf. Gae b``a sb mfgb rbobrbeghf f` gaesbesa a fpaya qub
mf gaeghtfia `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf be gubsth÷e. Bsf ebgbshifi ib `bkhthdhifi pubib mf-
gbr rbgadbeifc`b bstfc`bgbr dbgfehsdas pfrf `f pfrthghpfgh÷e ib `as ibstheftfrhas
ea sa`a be `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e shea heg`usa be `f ofsb ib ihsböa ib `f pa`äthgf.
Gf`hifi ib` ihsböa (bstftuta) ib `f pa`äthgf. @fs pa`äthgfs ibcbe gaetfr gae ac- jbthvas prbghsas qub arhbetbe (ea ibtbrdhebe) `fs fgghaebs ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e. B``a
supaeb bxfdhefr `f gambrbeghf ib `as acjbthvas fsä gada `fs fdchkðbifibs a vfgäas
qub pubibe bxhsthr be b` ihsböa. Be bstb pueta ibcb tbebrsb be gubetf qub fqub``fs
pa`äthgfs qub pbrshkube ihvbrshifi ib acjbthvas y uth`hzfe dú`thp`bs hestrudbetas ib
hetbrvbegh÷e sae dæs ihoägh`bs ib bjbgutfr.
Ihspaehch`hifi ib rbgursas. Yaif pa`äthgf supaeb `f davh`hzfgh÷e ib paibr, rb-
gursas y gfpfghifibs qub pbrdhtfe kfrfethzfr `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e. @f ea ihspaehch-`hifi ib bstas b`bdbetas pubib paebr ib dfehbsta ibghbeghfs ib` pragbsa ib oar -
du`fgh÷e, f` ea p`fetbfrsb gae rhkurashifi guæ`bs sae `fs gaeihghaebs bgae÷dhgfs y
arkfehzfghaef`bs ebgbsfrhfs pfrf b` èxhta ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e.
@hibrfzka ib` pragbsa. @f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e supaeb `f ebgbshifi ib gaarihefr y
frthgu`fr b` gadpartfdhbeta ib as dú`thp`bs fgtarbs y arkfehzfghaebs hetbrvhehbetbs.
B` gfrægtbr gadp`bja y du`thihdbeshaef` ib `as prac`bdfs qub `fs pa`äthgfs fcarife
mfgb qub bsf bjbgugh÷e rbquhbrf b` fpartb ib gaeaghdhbetas y gfpfghifibs bspbgä-
gfs ib ue eúdbra duy fdp`ha y ihvbrsa ib fgtarbs. @f bxhstbeghf ib bsas `hibrfzkas pubib gaetrhcuhr f pradavbr bsf gaarihefgh÷e y/a garrbkhr prac`bdfs qub pubife
bdbrkbr iurfetb b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e.
Frthgu`fgh÷e betrb b` hibrfzka ib` pragbsa, b` ehvb` ib futarhifi y `as bjbgutarbs
ib `fs fgghaebs. Gufeia bsf frthgu`fgh÷e ea sb praiugb par rfzaebs ib ihstfeghf sa-
ghf`, bspfghf` a jbrærquhgf, `fs pracfch`hifibs ib ihstarshaebs be `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e
sae b`bvfifs. Bsf frthgu`fgh÷e pubib `akrfrsb f trfvès ib rb`fghaebs oardf`bs, pbra
bsta sa`a sbræ bgfz be gaetbxtas ib tfrbfs paga gadp`bjas, qub uth`hzfe tbgea`akäfsbstfeifrhzfifs y qub ibdfeifs bsgfsf futaeadäf par pfrtb ib` apbrfiar.
Gfpfghifibs bstrftèkhgfs: @f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ea bs ue pragbsa bxg`ushvfdbetb
tègehga shea fibdæs pa`äthga. Bxhkb, par tfeta, ihspaebr ib `f gfpfghifi pfrf feth-
ghpfr gadpartfdhbetas y gaesbgubeghfs, y ihsböfr y pradavbr gursas ib fggh÷e be
gaetbxtas ib hegbrthiudcrb, fdchkðbifi, tbeshaebs y gaehgtas.
Gfpfghifibs arkfehzfghaef`bs: Sbbrb f `as ftrhcutas ib `fs arkfehzfghaebs be-
gfrkfifs ib f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib f pa`äthgf. Betrb bstfs gfpfghifibs sb ibstfgfe: f)
`f gadprbesh÷e ib` dfeifta ib `f pa`äthgf, c) b` f`hebfdhbeta y gadpradhsa gae `fs
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arhbetfghaebs bstrftèkhgfs ib f pa`äthgf, g) f ihspaehch`hifi ib rbgursas kbrbeghf`bs,
tègehgas y apbrfthvas pfrf davh`hzfr, i) `f dathvfgh÷e ib sus hetbkrfetbs, y b) `f
bxhstbeghf ib ue shstbdf ib hegbethvas y sfeghaebs.
=. @F B_F@RFGH×E
@f bvf`ufgh÷e bs uef fgthvhifi qub pragurf fcrhr juhghas gae rbspbgta f `as pra-
iugtas, rbsu`tfias b hdpfgtas ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. @f cúsqubif ib tègehgfs y
dbtaia`akäfs ihrhkhifs f hetraiughr dbjar oueifdbetfgh÷e f `fs frkudbetfghaebs be
tarea f `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs y f `f vf`arfgh÷e ib sus rbsu`tfias y bobgtas sb mf gae-
vbrthia be `fs ú`thdfs iègfifs be uef ib `fs prbagupfghaebs gbetrf`bs ib` feæ`hshs ib
pa`äthgfs. Wus gaetrhcughaebs sb rbbrbe f ihvbrsas p`feas:
h) Oueifdbetfgh÷e shstbdæthgf ib juhghas sacrb `f pa`äthgf y su kbsth÷e: bs-
thdf ib dfebrf rhkurasf y f trfvès ib bvhibeghfs b` `akra ib `fs dbtfs, rb-
quhbrb `f hibethgfgh÷e y dbihgh÷e ib praiugtas y rbsu`tfias y pashch`htf `f
dbihgh÷e ib `f bghbeghf, `f bgfghf y `f bobgthvhifi. Hibethgf prac`bdfs
ib ihsböa ib `fs pa`äthgfs y ib `as pragbsas ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e.
hh) Yrfespfrbeghf y gaetra` saghf`: f trfvès ib bstfs gaetrhcughaebs, rbfr -
df `a ‐púc`hga— gada `f bsobrf ib hetbrès gadúe, fcrb `f pashch`hifi ib`
ibcfthr hdp`hgfeghfs y gaesbgubeghfs ib hibfs f`tbrefthvf y bs bxprbsh÷eib `f sucarihefgh÷e ib `f fggh÷e ib` bstfia f `f saghbifi be su gfrægtbr ib
dfeiftfrha y ib kbstar ib` chbe gadúe.
hhh) ^brobgghaefdhbeta gaestfetb: gada bsoubrza shstbdæthga crheif b`bdbe-
tas pfrf `f rbvhsh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs y pfrf begfrfr fgghaebs ib oartf`bgh-
dhbeta y ibsfrra``a ib `f kbsth÷e púc`hgf.
hv) Fprbeihzfjb y kbebrfgh÷e ib gaeaghdhbeta: `f bvf`ufgh÷e pbrdhtb hegar-
parfr `fs `bgghaebs ib `f bxpbrhbeghf, paeb f prubcf `fs mhp÷tbshs qub sas-
thbebe `fs pa`äthgfs, fyuif f gadprbeibr dbjar `as prac`bdfs y gaetrhcuyb
f f`gfezfr uef dfyar fprbghfgh÷e ib` patbeghf` ib dbihas b hestrudbetas y
ib `f vhfch`hifi ib bstrftbkhfs y gursas ib fggh÷e.
^frf fib`fetfreas f` trftfdhbeta qub sb `b ifræ f` tbdf be b` ú`thda gfpätu`a,
ibehdas f `f bvf`ufgh÷e gada uef prægthgf hetbkrf` ib gaestruggh÷e, feæ`hshs y ga-
duehgfgh÷e ib heoardfgh÷e úth` pfrf dbjarfr fspbgtas ib `f ibehgh÷e b hdp`bdbe-
tfgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, ue pragbsa ib fprbeihzfjb qub heg`uyb `f rbbxh÷e
gräthgf sacrb `as fghbrtas y brrarbs gadbthias y `f gaesbgubetb daihgfgh÷e ib `asgursas ib fggh÷e.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
669
`fs fdchkðbifibs ib `f shtufgh÷e ib pfrthif (`äebfs ib cfsb) y f` gfrægtbr dú`thp`b
ib `as rbsu`tfias b hdpfgtas. Be `fs ú`thdfs iègfifs sb mfe vbehia ibsp`bkfeia
bsoubrzas pfrf hegarparfr `f bvf`ufgh÷e gada prægthgf shstbdæthgf pfrf b` ihsböa, b`
sbkuhdhbeta y `f kbsth÷e ib pa`äthgfs y prakrfdfs. Be `f fgtuf`hifi, `as pfäsbs gae
dfyarbs gfpfghifibs pa`äthgfs y tègehgfs gubetfe gae ædchtas hesthtughaef`hzfias pfrf bsf bvf`ufgh÷e.
@f prægthgf ib f bvf`ufgh÷e ib prakrfdfs y pa`äthgfs kucbrefdbetf`bs gadhbezf
f gaesa`hifrsb be `as föas ?>, be `as qub b` apthdhsda pashthvhstf sacrb b` f`gfegb
rbf` ib fs ghbeghfs saghf`bs y ue gaetbxta ofvarfc`b `bvfrae f f hesthtughaef`hzfgh÷e
ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e gada uef hestfeghf dæs be `f prægthgf kucbrefdbetf`, prheghpf`-
dbetb be `as Bstfias Rehias y Burapf (Cauzfs @arbeza 3>>2< Sbpbtta 3>6>).
F dbihfias ib `as föas ;>, gadhbezf uef sbkueif btfpf be `f bva`ugh÷e ib `asbstuihas ib bvf`ufgh÷e, ib `f dfea ib ue gfdcha hiba`÷khga fgbrgf ib` ra` ib` Bs-
tfia y su gfpfghifi ib hetbrvbegh÷e be `f bgaeadäf y `f saghbifi. B` gaeshkuhbetb
rbgartb f `as oaeias ihspaehc`bs pfrf `f bvf`ufgh÷e y `f rbiuggh÷e ib `as p`fetb`bs
praobshaef`bs ib `f fidhehstrfgh÷e púc`hgf ``bvfrae f uef ihsdheugh÷e be b` hetbrès
par `f ihsghp`hef y b` rbp`hbkub tb÷rhga be `f praiuggh÷e ib bstuihas ib bvf`ufgh÷e.
Bstf èpagf ib rbtrfhdhbeta iha pfsa, f dbihfias ib `as föas 8>, f ue eubva hd-
pu`sa bvf`ufiar, be bstb gfsa ib `f dfea ib` ibsfrra``a ib daib`as ib ihsböa bxpbrh-
dbetf`, gae fshkefgh÷e f`bftarhf f krupas ib gaetra` y trftfdhbeta, y f pra`hobrfgh÷eib tègehgfs bstfiästhgfs pfrf `f dbihgh÷e ib` hdpfgta ib `as prakrfdfs y pa`äthgfs.
B` ibsfrra``a ib bstfs tègehgfs thbeb gada acjbthva prheghpf` b` gaetra` ib` bobgta ib
`fs gaeihghaebs fdchbetf`bs b heubeghf ib ofgtarbs bxtbreas pfrf actbebr (hibf`-
dbetb) uef dbihif ibpurfif ib` ‐vbrifibra— hdpfgta ib` prakrfdf be gubsth÷e, she
heubeghf ib ofgtarbs fjbeas f` prakrfdf dhsda (Kuzdæe 3>>;).
Eurhf Gueh`` y Waehf Asphef (3>>7) mfe prbsbetfia `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs ib `as shstb-
dfs ib bvf`ufgh÷e be Fdèrhgf @fthef, be ihobrbetbs frtägu`as. Gada hibfs prheghpf`bs paibdas bxtrfbr qub f bvf`ufgh÷e f ehvb` pfäs be Fdèrhgf @fthef gacrf ghbrtas ehvb`bs
ib pratfkaehsda be f iègfif ib` 8>. Be f fgtuf`hifi as Whstbdfs Efghaef`bs ib Bvf-
`ufgh÷e ib ^a`äthgfs sb begubetrfe be rboardu`fgh÷e, prubcf ib b``a sae:
h) B` rbihsböa ib fs bxpbrhbeghfs f ehvb` efghaef` be ihobrbetbs pfäsbs ib Fdè-
rhgf @fthef, gada sae `as gfsas ib Ga`adchf, Gmh`b, Crfsh` y Gastf Shgf.
hh) B` fukb ib `fs apartuehifibs ib oardfgh÷e, hetbrgfdcha y gaeoardfgh÷e
ib rbibs ib bvf`ufiarbs b hesthtughaebs ibihgfifs f `f bvf`ufgh÷e.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
662
hhh) B` surkhdhbeta ib fgghaebs gaegrbtfs ib bvf`ufgh÷e hetbkrf` ib krfeibs
pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, gada sae be Frkbethef f Fshkefgh÷e Rehvbrsf` par Mhja
y b` ^rakrfdf Gaebgtfr Hkuf`ifi.
hv) ^ar atrf pfrtb, be `as ú thdas föas mf gacrfia oubrzf `f hibf ib rbarhbetfr
`as shstbdfs ib kbsth÷e ib `fs fidhehstrfghaebs púc`hgfs mfghf b` gudp`h-dhbeta ib `as acjbthvas pa`äthgas ib kachbrea. Bjbdp`as ib bstas daib`as
pubibe sbr `as Whstbdfs ib Wbkuhdhbeta ib Dbtfs ^rbshibeghf`bs ib Crfsh`
(f gfrka ib `f Gfsf Ghvh` ibpbeihbetb ib `f prbshibeghf) y Dèxhga (tfdchèe
f gfrka ihrbgtfdbetb ib `f prbshibeghf, be frthgu`fgh÷e gae b` ærbf ib Kbs-
th÷e ^úc`hgf).
@as ú`thdas ibcftbs y feæ`hshs sacrb `f bvf`ufgh÷e p`fetbfe `f ebgbshifi ib gaes-
truhr b hdp`bdbetfr ue daib`a ib bvf`ufgh÷e pa`äthgf, hetbkrf` y pfrthghpfthvf. ^frfbstas beoaqubs, `f bvf`ufgh÷e ibcb sbr betbeihif gada grhtbrha be `f kbsth÷e ib `as
prakrfdfs púc`hgas y ea shdp`bdbetb gada ue dadbeta ib f p`fehgfgh÷e ftrfvhb-
sf taia b` ghg`a ib vhif ib uef pa`äthgf, oartf`bghbeia `as gaebgtarbs betrb `f betrfif
ib` prac`bdf be `f fkbeif púc`hgf, `fs väfs ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e y `f gaestruggh÷e ib
`as rbsu`tfias ef`bs (^hgmfria Duöhz, 688;).
SbobrbeghfsFkuh`fr _h``feubvf, @uhs O., @f mbgmurf ib `fs pa`äthgfs (Ga`bggh÷e Feta`akäfs ib
^a`äthgf ^úc`hgf, _a`. HH), Dèxhga, IO: ^arrúf, 688?f.
Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, @uhs O., ^rac`bdfs púc`hgas y fkbeif ib kachbrea (Ga`bggh÷eFeta`akäfs ib ^a`äthgf ^úc`hgf, _a`. HHH), Dèxhga, IO: ^arrúf, 688?c.
Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf, @uhs O., @f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib fs pa`äthgfs (Ga`bggh÷e Feta-`akäfs ib ^a`äthgf ^úc`hgf, _a`. H_), Dèxhga, IO: ^arrúf, 688?g.
Feibrsae, Jfdbs, ^uc`hg ^a`hgy Dflhek, Ebw Xarl, Ebw Ma`t, Shebmfrt y [hes-tae, 68;2.
Cfrifgm, Bukbeb. Ymb Hdp`bdbetfthae Kfdb, Gfdcrhikb, Dfss.: Ymb DHY rbss,68=>.
Cbrdfe, ^fu`, ‐Ymhelhek fcaut ^rakrfddbi fei Fifpthvb Hdp`bdbetfthae:Dftgmhek Wtrftbkhbs ta Whtufthaes—, be M. Hekrfd y I. Dfee (Bis.) [my ^a`h-ghbs Wuggbss ar Ofh`bi1 Cbvbr`y Mh``s, Gf`.: Wfkb, 68=>.
Cbrdfe, ^fu`, ‐Ymb Wtuiy ao Dfgra-Dhgra Hdp`bdbetfthae—, ^uc`hg ^a`hgy, 3?(3): 62;-6=9, 68;=.
Cauzfs @arbeza, Sfd÷e, ‐@as gfdheas ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs:uef rbvhsh÷e ib` beoaqub—, Sbvhstf ib Hevbsthkfghaebs ^a`äthgfs y Wagha`÷kh-
gfs, 9 (3): ?8-=?, 3>>2.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
66?
Crbwbr, Kfrry, ‐Ymb ^a`hgy Wghbegbs Bdbrkb: Ya Eurturb fei Wtrugturb f Ihsgh- p`heb—, ^a`hgy Wghbegbs, 2 (7): 678-399, 68;9.
Gacc, Sakbr [., Sass, Jbfeehb. L. y Sass, Dfrg. M., ‐Fkbeif-Cuh`ihek fs fGadpfrfthvb ^a`hthgf` ^ragbss—, Fdbrhgfe ^a`hthgf` Wghbegb Sbvhbw, ;> (6):63?-67=, 68;?.
Gacc, Sakbr [. y Gmfr`bs. I. B`ibr, ^frthghpfthae he Fdbrhgfe ^a`hthgs: YmbIyefdhgs ao Fkbeif-Cuh`ihek, Cf`thdarb: James Maplhes Rehvbrshty ^rbss,68;3.
Gacc, Sakbr [. y Gmfr`bs I. B`ibr, ‐Ymb ^a`hthgs ao Fkbeif-Cuh`ihek: Fe F`tbr-efthvb ^brspbgthvb oar Daibre Ibdagrfthg Ymbary—, Ymb Jauref` ao ^a`hthgs,77 (9): =83-862, 68;6.
Gueh` ` Krfu Eurhf y Waehf Asphef. 3>>7. ‐Ref fkbeif ib hevbsthkfgh÷e sacrb `fbvf`ufgh÷e ib `as rbsu`tfias ib `f kbsth÷e púc`hgf—, Eurhf Gueh` Krfu y WaehfAsphef (Bis.) Bvf`ufgh÷e ib rbsu`tfias pfrf uef kbsth÷e púc`hgf daibref y
ibdagræthgf. Bxpbrhbeghfs `ftheafdbrhgfefs, Gfrfgfs: G@FI / FBGH / DF^/ OHHF^^, 68;6.
Iawes, Fetmaey, ‐Rp fei Iawe whtm Bga`aky: Ymb Hssub Fttbethae Gyg`b—, ^u- c`hg Hetbrbst, 3= (6): 7=-2>, 68;3.
Bfstae, Ifvhi, Ymb ^a`hthgf` Wystbd. Fe Hequhry heta tmb Wtftb ao ^a`hthgf` Wghbe-gb, Eubvf Xarl: F`orbi Leapo, 6827.
B`darb, Sacbrt, ‐Oarwfri fei Cfglwfri Dfpphek: Sbvbrshc`b @akhg he tmbFef`yshs ao ^uc`hg ^a`hgy—, be L. Mfeo y Y. Yaaebe (Bis.) ^a`hgy Hdp`bdbe-tfthae he Obibrf` fei Rehtfry Wystbds, Castae: Dfrtheus Ehjmaoo ^uc`hsmbrs,
68=2.B`darb, Sacbrt, ‐Cfglwfri Dfpphek: Hdp`bdbetfthae Sbsbfrgm fei ^a`hgy Ib-ghshae—, ^a`hthgf` Wghbegb Vufr tbr`y, 89 (9): ?>6-?>8, 68=>.
B`darb, Sacbrt, ‐Arkfehzfthaef` Daib`s ao Waghf` ^rakrfd Hdp`bdbetfthae—,^uc`hg ^a`hgy, 3? (3): 6=;-33=, 68;=.
Kakkhe, D.@., Fee A‘D Cawdfe, Jfdbs ^. @bstbr fei @.J. A‘Yaa`b Jr., Hd- p`bdbetfthae Ymbary fei ^rfgthgb: Yawfri f Ymhri Kbebrfthae, Eubvf Xarl:Mfrpbr Ga``hes, 688>.
Kakkhe, Df`gad, ‐Ymb ”Yaa Obw Gfsbs / Yaa Dfey _frhfc`bs‘ ^rac`bd he Hd-
p`bdbetfthae Sbsbfrgm—, [bstbre ^a`hthgf` Vufr tbr`y, 78 (3): 73=-79;, 68=?.Kuee, @bwhs F., ‐[my Hs Hdp`bdbetfthae Wa Ihoo hgu`t1—, Dfefkbdbet Wbrvhgbshe Kavbredbet, 77: 6?8-6;?, 68;=.
Kuzdæe, Dfrgb`f, ‐Bvf`ufgh÷e ib prakrfdfs. Eatfs tègehgfs.— Wbrhb Kbsth÷e^úc`hgf ?9, Wfethfka ib Gmh`b, Hesthtuta @ftheafdbrhgfea y ib` Gfrhcb ib ^`f-ehohgfgh÷e Bgae÷dhgf y Waghf` (H@^BW), 3>>;.
Mbg`a, Mukm, ‐Hssub Ebtwarls fei tmb Bxbguthvb Bstfc`hsmdbet—, be F. Lhek(Bi.) Ymb Ebw Fdbrhgfe ^a`hthgf` Wystbd, [fsmhektae, Fdbrhgfe BetbrprhsbHesthtutb, 68;=.
Jbelhes, [h``hfd, ^a`hgy Fef`yshs: F ^a`hthgf` fei Arkfehzfthaef` ^brspbgthvb,@aeirbs, Dfrt he Sacbrtsae, 68;=.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
66;
Jaebs, Gmfr`bs A., Fe Hetraiugthae ao tmb Wtuiy ao ^uc`hg ^a`hgy, Cb`daet, Gf`h-oarehf, [fiswartm Ga., 68;>.
Lhekiae, Jame, Fkbeifs, F`tbrefthvbs fei ^uc`hg ^a`hghbs, Castae, @htt`b Crawe,68=9.
@fsswb``, Mfra`i, Ymb Ibghshae ^ragbss: Wbvbe Gftbkarhbs ao Ouegthaef` Fef`y-shs, Ga``bkb ^frl: Rehvbrshifi ib Dfry`fei ^rbss, 682?.
@fsswb``, Mfra`i, ‐Ymb Ibghshae ^ragbss—, be E. ^a`scy, S. Ibet`br, y ^. Wdhtm(Bis.) ^a`hthgs fei Waghf` @hob: Fe Hetraiugthae ta ^a`hthgf` Cbmfvhar, EbwMfvbe: Maukmtae Dhoo`he Gadpfey, 6827.
@fsswb``, Mfra`i, ‐Ymb ^a`hgy Arhbetft hae—, be I. @brebr y M. @fsswb`` (Gadps.)Ymb ^a`hgy Wghbegbs, Wtfeoari, Wtfeoari Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 6826.
@heic`ad, Gmfr`bs, Ibdagrfghf y Whstbdf ib Dbrgfia, Dèxhga, IO: Oaeia ibGu`turf Bgae÷dhgf, 6888.
@heic`ad, Gmfr`bs, ‐Ymb Wghbegb ao Duii`hek Ymraukm—, ^uc`hg FidhehstrfthaeSbvhbw, 68 (3): ;=-==, 6828.
@hpsly, Dhgmfb`, Wtrbbt @bvb` Curbfugrfts, Eubvf Xarl, Sussb`` Wfkb Oaueif-thae, 68=>.
@ulbs, W., B` paibr. Re beoaqub rfihgf`, Cubeas Fhrbs, Whk`a ]]H, 68=2.
Dfy, Juihtm y Ffrae [h`ifvsly, Ymb ^a`hgy Gyg`b, Cbvbr`y Mh``s, Gf`.: Wfkb,68;=.
DgGadcs Dfx B. y Iaef`i @. Wmfw, ‐Wtrugturhek tmb ”uesbbe bevhraedbet—,Jauref` ao Gadduehgfthae, 3? (3): 6=-33, 68;?.
DgGadcs Dfx B. y Iaef`i @. Wmfw, ‐Ymb Fkbeif Wbtthek Ouegthae ao tmb DfssDbihf—, ^uc`hg Aphehae Vufr tbr`y, 7?: 6;?-6=;, 68;3.
Dfjaeb, Khfeiadbehga, Bvhibeghf, frkudbetfgh÷e y pbrsufsh÷e be `f oardu`f-gh÷e ib pa`äthgfs, Dèxhga, IO: Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf, 688;.
Dfjaeb, Khfeiadbehga y Ffrae [h`ifvsly, ‐Hdp`bdbetfthae fs Bva`uthae—, ^a-`hgy Wtuihbs Sbvhbw Feeuf`, 3: ?? -?=, 68;=.
^hgmfria Duöhz, Fr`bttb, Bvf`ufgh÷e ib` hdpfgta saghf`, b` vf`ar ib `as mudfeafetb `f grhshs y b` fjustb, Cubeas Fhrbs, @udbe Mudfehtfs, 688;.
Sbpbtta, Ofchæe, ‐Gaarihefgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs saghf`bs: fcarifjb gaegbptuf` y rb-vhsh÷e ib `fs bxpbrhbeghfs `ftheafdbrhgfefs—, be Ibsfo äas ib `f gaarihefgh÷ey `f hetbkrhifi ib `fs pa`äthgfs y kbsth÷e púc`hgf be Fdèrhgf @fthef, CubeasFhrbs, Jbofturf ib Kfchebtbs ib Dhehstras, 3>6>.
Sakbrs, Bvbrbtt D. y Jfdbs [. Ibfrhek, ‐Fkbeif Wbtthek Sbsbfrgm: [mbrb MfsHt Cbbe, [mbrb Hs Ht Kahek1—, Gadduehgft haes Xbfrcaal, 66: 222-289, 68=;.
Sasb, Shgmfri, ‐Gadpfrhek ^uc`hg ^a`hgy: Fe Avbrvhbw—, Burapbfe Jauref` ao^a`hthgf` Sbsbfrgm, 6 (6): ?;-89, 68;7.
Wfcfthbr, ^fu`, ‐Yap-Iawe fei Cattad-Rp Fpprafgmbs ta Hdp`bdbetfthae Sb-sbfrgm: f Grhthgf` Fef`yshs—, Jauref` ao ^uc`hg ^a`hgy, ? (6): 36-9=, 68=?.
Wgmdhttbr, ^mh`hppb G., ‐Wth`` tmb Gbetury ao Garparfthsd1—, be . Wgmdhttbr, y K.@bmdcrugm (Bis.) Yrbeis tawfri Garparfthst Hetbrdbihfthae, @aeirbs, Wfkb,68;8.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
66=
Whdae, Mbrcbrt, Fidhehstrfthvb Cbmfvhaur, @aeirbs, DgDh``fe, 6892.
Whdae, Mbrcbrt, Daib`s ao Dfe: Waghf` fei Sfthaef`, Eubvf Xarl, Jame [h`by,682;.
Wlagpa`, Ymbif, ‐B` Bstfia rbkrbsf f` prhdbr p`fea: bstrftbkhfs ib feæ`hshs be `fhevbsthkfgh÷e fgtuf`—, Zaef Fchbrtf, 2>: ;6-633, 68=8.
Yfdfya Wæbz, D., ‐B` feæ`hshs ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs—, be S. Cföae y B. Gfrrh-``a, (Gadps.) @f eubvf fidhehstrfgh÷e púc`hgf, Dfirhi, F`hfezf, 688;.
[bcbr, Dfx, Bgaeadäf y Waghbifi, Dèxhga, IO: Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf,6883.
[h`ifvsly, Ffrae, Wpbflhek Yrutm ta ^awbr. Ymb Frt fei Grfot ao ^a`hgy Fef`y-shs, @aeirbs, Dfgdh``fe, 68;8.
[h`ifvsly, Ffrae y Jboorby ^rbssdfe, Hdp`bdbetfthae, Cbrlb`by, Gf`.: Rehvbrsh-ty ao Gf`hoarehf ^rbss, 68;7.
[h``hfds, [f`tbr, Ymb Hdp`bdbetfthae ^brspbgthvb, Cbrlb`by, Gf`.: Rehvbrshty aoGf`hoarehf ^rbss, 68=>.
[h``hfds, [f`tbr, Wtuiyhek Hdp`bdbetfthae: Dbtmaia`aky fei FidhehstrfthvbHssubs, Gmftmfd, E.J.: Gmftmfd Mausb, 68=3.
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GF^ÄYR@A _. Sfghaef`hifi y tadf ib ibghshaebs
6. Hetraiuggh÷e. 3. Sfghaef`hifi y pragbsas ib tadf ib ibghshaebs be b`feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. 3.6. @f tbaräf ib `f b`bggh÷e rfghaef`. 3.3. He-grbdbetf`hsda. 3.7. ragbsas b hesthtughaebs. 7. Ibghsh÷e y paibr. 7.6. @f hibfib gfdpa ib jubka. 9. Fgtarbs y gaapbrfgh÷e. 9.6. Daib`as bspfghf`bs. 9.3.Ybaräf ib Jubkas. 9.7. ^rheghpf`/fkbetb. 9.9. B` tfdföa ib `as krupas. _az yWf`hif. 9.2. @f ibpbeibeghf ib `f trfybgtarhf (^ftm Ibpbeibegb). 9.?. Hesthtu-ghaebs pa`äthgfs y ibghsh÷e. 2. Be rbsudbe.
6. HEYSAIRGGH×E
Be b` gfpätu`a fetbrhar vhdas g÷da brf pashc`b fef`hzfr `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf gada ue
pragbsa betbeihia be btfpfs y ib què dfebrf ihsthetfs ‐bsgub`fs— a tbaräfs ib rfeka
dbiha, qub bstuihfe pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, fcarifrae bstb obe÷dbea. Be bstb gfpätu`a
eas ibihgfrbdas f` feæ`hshs ib `f oardf be qub sb tadfe `fs ibghshaebs y sb oardu-
`fe `fs pa`äthgfs y `f dfebrf be qub sb usf b` feæ`hshs ibetra ib` pragbsa ib tadf ib
ibghshaebs.
^frf gadbezfr, paibdas ibehr `f tadf ib ibghshaebs gada:
‐Re pragbsa be b` qub sb b`hkb a sb`bgghaef uef ibtbrdhefif apgh÷e, par `a guf` `f eagh÷e
ib ibghsh÷e hdp`hgf ue pueta a uef sbrhb ib puetas be b` thbdpa y b` bspfgha qub dfrgf
b` dadbeta be qub `as ihsböfiarbs ib `fs pa`äthgfs fshkefe vf`arbs. Be bstb sbethia, `f
tadf ib ibghshaebs fcfrgf `f tatf`hifi ib` ghg`a ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, par bjbdp`a,
`fs ibghshaebs fgbrgf ib què gaesthtuyb ue ”prac`bdf‘, què heoardfgh÷e b`bkhr, sb`bggh÷eib bstrftbkhfs pfrf heuhr `f fkbeif ib `fs pa`äthgfs, sb`bggh÷e ib apghaebs pa`äthgfs f
gaeshibrfr, sb`bggh÷e ib què apgh÷e, sb`bggh÷e ib ebs y dbihas, sb`bggh÷e ib` dètaia pfrf
hdp`bdbetfr `f pa`äthgf be gubsth÷e, sb`bggh÷e ib` dètaia pfrf bvf`ufr `fs pa`äthgfs. Be
gfif uea ib bstas puetas mfy tadf ib ibghshaebs.— (^frsaes 3>>;: 3;7)
Yf` gada Mfra`i @fswb`` frdfrf b` feæ`hshs ib tadf ib ibghshaebs sb agupf ib
‐quhèe acthbeb què, guæeia y i÷eib— (@fswb``, 682>). Be bstb sbethia, `as feæ`hshs ib
tadf ib ibghshaebs pubibe fcfrgfr tfeta ue dfrga ibsgrhpthva ib g÷da sb tada uef
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ibghsh÷e ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf, gada uef hibf eardfthvf ib g÷da ibcbräf a ibcb sbr
b` pragbsa ib tadf ib ibghshaebs. B` feæ`hshs ib `fs pa`äthgfs gada ‐frtb— y ‐agha—
([h`ifvsly 68=>) thbeb par acjbthva g`frhgfr b` feæ`hshs ib as pragbsas y ib f tadf
ib ibghsh÷e gada oardfs ib gaeaghdhbeta fp`hgfia. Ib bstf oardf, b` feæ`hshs ib `fs
ibghshaebs pubib betbeibrsb gada ue pragbsa chihdbeshaef` (‐feæ`hshs ib y feæ`hshsbe—) guyas gadpaebetbs bstæe heträesbgfdbetb betrbgruzfias. Fuequb sb prbtbeif
sbpfrfr`as y ihobrbeghfr`as gae ebs bxp`hgfthvas bs hdpartfetb ea a`vhifr `f oardf
be qub bstfs daif`hifibs ib feæ`hshs sb supbrpaebe y betrbtbjbe.
Iurfetb b` trfesgursa ib bstf uehifi fcarifrbdas `as shkuhbetbs tbdfs: (h) be
prhdbr `ukfr, fef`hzfrbdas `f rb`fgh÷e betrb rfghaef`hifi y tadf ib ibghsh÷e be gfif
uea ib `as prheghpf`bs bsgub`fs ib` feæ`hshs ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs< (hh) pastbrhar-
dbetb bxfdhefrbdas atrfs ib `fs rb`fghaebs prac`bdæthgfs ibetra ib` feæ`hshs ib pragbsa ib tadf ib ibghsh÷e be pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: fs rb`fghaebs betrb ibghsh÷e y pa-
ibr, mfghbeia pfrthgu`fr èeofshs be `f hibf ib gfdpa ib jubka< (hhh) ^ar ú`thda, fef`h-
zfrbdas `as prac`bdfs ib `f ibghshaebs mudfefs be shtufghaebs bstrftèkhgfs f pfrthr
ib fef`hzfr `fs rb`fghaebs betrb ibghshaebs heihvhiuf`bs y `f gaapbrfgh÷e ga`bgthvf.
3. S FGHAEF@HIFI X ^SAGBWAW IB YADF IB IBGHWH×E BE B@ FEÆ@HWHW
IB @FW ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFWB` feæ`hshs ib `fs ibghshaebs gadprbeib uef fdp`hf kfdf ib ihsghp`hefs y ib dfrgas
fgfièdhgas qub vfe ibsib `f ghbeghf pa`äthgf f `f fidhehstrfgh÷e, pfsfeia par `f
tbaräf arkfehzfghaef`, `f bgaeadäf, `f sagha`akäf y `f pshga`akäf, betrb atrfs. F`ka
tfe gadp`bja gada f tadf ib ibghshaebs par pfrtb ib pbrsaefs y krupas bsgfpf f fs
gfpfghifibs bxp`hgfthvfs ib uef ihsghp`hef heihvhiuf`.
Bstb fpfrtfia bstæ ibihgfia f` feæ`hshs ib `as daib`as ib tadf ib ibghsh÷e. ^ar
bsta, y be ue hetbeta ib sbr shetèthgas (qub ea dugmfs vbgbs bs fgaesbjfc`b), hetbetf-
rbdas fef`hzfr bstas fcarifjbs be trbs krfeibs trfihghaebs (qub gaheghibe, be krfe-
ibs rfskas, gae `fs krfeibs bsgub`fs ib `f ghbeghf pa`äthgf). Sbgurrhr f bstf g`fshgf-
gh÷e ea shkehgf ga`agfr `fs hibfs be gfjfs a gfsh``fs pbrobgtfdbetb ib`hdhtfifs. @as
ihsthetas fpartbs f` feæ`hshs ib `fs ibghshaebs shbdprb hetbrfgtúfe y sb supbrpaebe.
Fibdæs, ue beoaqub shrvb ib gräthgf f` atra y ea bs rfra begaetrfr ibeadhefiarbs
gaduebs betrb `as beoaqubs y sus dfrgas.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
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Beoaqubs ib ^a`äthgfs ^úc`hgfs
BeoaqubFgtar rfghaef`
68?>: Cugmfefe y Yu``agl<Iawes< Ehslfebe.
Sfghaef`hifi hdhtfif68;>: Whdae< @heic`ad<
B`darb< [h`ifvsly.
Daib`a ib pragbsa68=>: F``hsae< @heic`ad<
Dfrgm y A`sbe< Eartm< B`stbr.
FgtarbsFgtar gbetrf` tadfiar
ib ibghsh÷e.
Fgtar gbetrf` tadfiarib ibghsh÷e be ue betarea
ib hegbrthiudcrb.
_frhbifi ib fgtarbs (rbibsib fgtarbs, trhæeku`as ib mhbrra,
fgtarbs ib vbta, gaf`hghaebs).
^ragbsas
Ofsbs (oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äth-gf, ibghsh÷e,
hdp`bdbetfgh÷e) kuhfifs paruef oardu`fgh÷e prbvhf ib
dbtfs.
Hegrbdbetf`. Beorbetfiaf hegbrthiudcrb.
B` frtb ib ‐sf`hr ib` pfsa—.
Gaehgta ib hetbrbsbs
y ib ibehghaebs
ib` prac`bdf.F`tfdbetb iheædhgas b hdprb-
ibghc`bs.
Ibghshaebs
Bsgakbeghf ib `f dbjar f`tbr-efthvf (dhehdhzfeia gastas,
dfxhdhzfeia cbebghas).
Bsgakbeghf ib f`tbrefthvfsqub sbfe ofgthc`bs y qub
pfrbzgfe ihsdheuhr `as prac`bdfs.
Bsgakb betrb f`tbrefthvfs qubkbebrbe fpaya y qub pubife sbr
vhegu`fifsf `as prac`bdfs.
^aibr Gbetrf`hzfia (fgtar gbetrf`).Gbetrf`hzfia pbra `hdhtfia
par `f hegbrthiudcrb.Ihvhihia (dugmas fgtarbs).
Heoardfgh÷e /_f`arbs
Heoardfgh÷e gadp`btf, vf-`arbs ifias (dbtfs ib ue fgtar
gbetrf`).
Heoardfgh÷e hegadp`btf yfdchkuf. @as vf`arbs
ea shbdprb bstæe.
Heoardfgh÷e ihspbrsfy fdchkuf. @as vf`arbs bstæe be
gaehgta y ea sae g`fras.
Oubetb: b`fcarfgh÷e praphf.
3.6. @f tbaräf ib `f b`bggh÷e rfghaef`
B` prhdbra ib bstas fcarifjbs bs b` ib `f tbaräf ib f b`bggh÷e rfghaef`, `f guf` surkb
f pfrthr ib ue gaejueta ib prapashghaebs bxp`hgfthvfs (y gaetrfstfc`bs bdpärhgfdbe-
tb) dbihfetb b` ibsfrra``a ib ue ihsgursa fxhadæthga y ibiugthva qub pubib ``bkfr
f rbghchr ue trftfdhbeta oardf` y dftbdæthga cfstfetb sasthgfia. @as prheghphas
sacrb `as qub sb gaestruyb bstb eubva gaejueta fef`äthga pubibe shetbthzfrsb be `fs
hibfs ib heihvhiuf`hsda dbtaia`÷khga wbcbrhfea y b` supubsta ib rfghaef`hifi he-ihvhiuf`.
B` heihvhiuf`hsda dbtaia`÷khga prbtbeib bxp`hgfr, f pfrthr ib `fs fgghaebs he-
ihvhiuf`bs, `as obe÷dbeas ib gfrægtbr ga`bgthva: f ihobrbeghf ib` beoaqub sagha`÷-
khga, ibstfgf `f hdpartfeghf ib `fs fgghaebs a b`bgghaebs heihvhiuf`bs, muybeia ib
guf`quhbr ibtbrdhehsda ib thpa bstrugturf`. Be kbebrf`, supaeb qub bstfs fgghaebs
heihvhiuf`bs rbspaeibe f` grhtbrha bgae÷dhga ib dfxhdhzfgh÷e ib uth`hifibs: `as
heihvhiuas ihspaebe ib ue gaejueta ehta ib f`tbrefthvfs betrb `fs qub b`bkhr y, ibdfebrf gambrbetb gae sus ebs, bsgakbe fqub``f qub bspbrfe `bs praparghaeb b` df-
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yar krfia ib sfthsofggh÷e6. Be bstb sbethia, `as heihvhiuas sae rfghaef`bs: gfif uea
thbeb `f gfpfghifi pfrf aribefr ib dfebrf gadp`btf y trfeshthvf (shbdprb be ouegh÷e
ib` krfia ib heoardfgh÷e ihspaehc`b) `fs f`tbrefthvfs qub sb `b prbsbetfe pfrf su
b`bggh÷e (Iawes 68;2< Cugmfefe y Yu``agl, 68=7< Shlbr 6886).
Be bstb gaetbxta, y rbspbgta ib` ghg`a ib pa`äthgf, futarbs gada Ifvhi Bfstae(68?8) y Mfra`i @fsswb`` (68;6) betbeiäfe qub rfghaef`dbetb brf pashc`b ‐pfrfrsb—
f` hehgha ib` ghg`a y kacbrefr`a be gfif uef ib sus btfpfs. Whe bdcfrka, `f prheghpf`
gräthgf f bstb pfrfihkdf pravhea ib sus praphfs `fs. F`kueas tb÷rhgas bethbeibe
qub b` daib`a prbiadhefetb p`fetbf prbsupubstas paga p`fushc`bs rbspbgta ib `f
rfghaef`hifi ib `as heihvhiuas.
3.3. Hegrbdbetf`hsdaIurfetb fs iègfifs ib` ?> y ;> fs prheghpf`bs gaeg`ushaebs f fs qub frrhcfe as bstu-
ihas ib fggh÷e ga`bgthvf ‗betrb `fs qub sb ibstfgfe `as trfcfjas ib Iuegfe C`fgl (682=)
y Lbeebtm Frraw (6886, 6889) ‗ fpuetfe f ibdastrfr qub bs hdpashc`b kfrfethzfr `f
bxhstbeghf ib ‐bquh`hcrhas— f pfrthr ib `fs sa`fs prbobrbeghfs heihvhiuf`bs: be saghbif-
ibs ‐gadp`bjfs— dugmas heihvhiuas aribefe sus prbobrbeghfs betrb vfrhfs f`tbrefthvfs
pashc`bs ib dfebrf ihobrbetb3. @äebfs ib hevbsthkfgh÷e pastbrharbs mfe gaeshibrfia
gada rbsu`tfias ib bquh`hcrha as actbehias f pfrthr ib fp`hgfgh÷e ib rbk`fs ibtbrdhef-ifs (gada par bjbdp`a fs rbk`fs ib dfyaräf) be bspfghas du`thihdbeshaef`bs cfsfias
be prbobrbeghfs qub gudp`be ibtbrdhefias rbquhshtas bdpärhgas7. ^bra, fúe be bstfs
gaeihghaebs, fs prbobrbeghfs rfrfdbetb pubibe kfrfethzfr qub sb f`gfegb uef ibghsh÷e
qub sbf heacjbtfc`b par b` dhsda ga`bgthva qub `f mf fiaptfia.
Bstb bs b` pueta ib pfrthif pfrf `f sbkueif trfihgh÷e ib `as beoaqubs ib pa`äth-
gfs púc`hgfs. Mbrcbrt Whdae be su acrf g`æshgf Daib`s ao Dfe (682;) ibsfrra``a `f
pbrspbgthvf tb÷rhgf qub bethbeib qub `f rfghaef`hifi mudfef bstæ `hdhtfif (caueibi
6 Vubsfif (688?: 628) bethbeib qub b` thpa ib rfghaef`hifi rbstrhekhia qub hdpbrf be `asdaib`as ib `f bgaeadäf g`æshgf bstæ cfsfia be sbhs gaeihghaebs, `÷khgfdbetb hetbribpbe-ihbetbs betrb sä: 6) rfghaef`hifi bkaästf, rbobrhif shbdprb f `f uth`hifi ib` prapha heihvhiua<3) arhbetfif f hetbrbsbs bstrhgtfdbetb dftbrhf`bs, 7) dfxhdhzfiarf ib uth`hifi, 9) frquhdb-ihfef, bs ibghr, sb fsudb qub `as ihsthetas ofgtarbs hetbrvhehbetbs be `f gadpashgh÷e ib `fouegh÷e ib uth`hifi sae hetbrgfdchfc`bs, par `a qub sb pubib bstfc`bgbr ue pftr÷e daebtfrha
pfrf bxprbsfr `f uth`hifi, 2) acjbthvf, gae heoardfgh÷e pbrobgtf ib fdchbetb, ?) pfrfdètrhgf,gae gfrfgtbrästhgfs ififs ib` fdchbetb, bs ibghr, bstfias ib pracfch`hifi jf.3 Yu``agl (68?;)< Iawihek (688;)< Dh``br (68=7).
7 Ehbdh y Shlbr (6886)< Dbrh`` (68=9)< Eurdh (68=7).
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rfghaef`hty) par: (h) `f efturf`bzf hegadp`btf y orfkdbetfif ib` gaeaghdhbeta, (hh)
gaesbgubeghfs ibsgaeaghifs qub ``bvfe f` tadfiar ib ibghshaebs f ibpbeibr ib bs-
tfc`bgbr vf`arfghaebs, (hhh) as ädhtbs ib ftbegh÷e: bs hdpbrhasa beorbetfr as prac`b-
dfs ib dfebrf sbrhf, bs ibghr, uea f `f vbz, yf qub `as tadfiarbs ib ibghshaebs ea
pubibe pbesfr be dugmas tbdfs f` dhsda thbdpa, (hv) `as sbrbs mudfeas fprbeibedbihfetb `f daihgfgh÷e ib su gadpartfdhbeta be ouegh÷e ib dbtfs hetbeghaef`bs<
`f gfpfghifi ib acsbrvfgh÷e y gaduehgfgh÷e `hdhtf bstb pragbsa ib fprbeihzfjb<
(v) `ädhtbs f `f gfpfghifi ib f`dfgbefdhbeta (dbdarhf) ib `f dbetb mudfef< (vh)
`as sbrbs mudfeas sae grhfturfs ib mæchtas y ruthefs< (vhh) `as sbrbs mudfeas thbebe
gfpfghifi ib gaegbetrfgh÷e hdhtfif< (vhhh) f tadf ib ibghsh÷e tfdchèe bstæ fgatfif
par ue betarea arkfehzfghaef` qub bedfrgf `as pragbsas ihspaehc`bs (Whdae, 682;:
=6-6>8). Be rbf`hifi, frkudbetfe, gae orbgubeghf `f heoardfgh÷e bs hebxhstbetb abs paga fc`b, `as grhtbrhas ib b`bggh÷e sae ièch`bs y pagfs vbgbs sae praiugta ib`
gaesbesa pa`äthga a saghf`. B` ibghsar ea thbeb `f gfpfghifi ebgbsfrhf pfrf kbebrfr
uef gfethifi fcsa`utf ib f`tbrefthvfs pfrf mfgbr orbetb f `fs tbeshaebs kbebrfifs par
b` pragbsa ibghshaef`. Fsä, be vbz ib uef ibghsh÷e rfghaef` fcsa`utf, b` ibghsar sb
gaetbetf gae uef ibghsh÷e sfthsofgtarhf.
Be `a rbobrhia f `a qub eas gaevagf, bsta bs `as pragbsas ib tadf ib ibghsh÷e
ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf, `fs gräthgfs f` beoaqub ib `f b`bggh÷e rfghaef` trfjbrae gada
gaesbgubeghf qub, sh b` fgtar brf vhsta par `as fef`hstfs gada ue tadfiar gbetrf` ibibghshaebs pbra be fdchbetbs ib hegbrthiudcrb, betaegbs ea sbräf pashc`b ‐aribefr—
taias `as dadbetas a ofsbs ib` ghg`a. ^ar `a tfeta, fef`äthgfdbetb sb betbeih÷ qub
`as fgtarbs paiäfe dfxhdhzfr sus fgghaebs ibetra ib gfif ofsb ib pa`äthgf. Ibetra
ib bstf pbrspbgthvf, `f tadf ib ibghshaebs pfrtb ib `f gadpfrfgh÷e betrb pa`äthgfs
qub sae dfrkhef`dbetb ihsthetfs betrb sä. Ea bxhstb uef dbtf ib pa`äthgf a uef pbrs-
pbgthvf f f`gfezfr shea qub `fs pa`äthgfs sb fjustfe hegrbdbetf`dbetb f pfrthr ib `as
dbihas y `as rbgursas ihspaehc`bs be gfif btfpf ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf. B` daib`abstæ, be cubef dbihif, cfsfia be b` besfya y brrar. B` hegrbdbetf`hsda prbsbetf uef
vhsh÷e rbhtbrfthvf ib `f ibghsh÷e cfsfif be uef fpraxhdfgh÷e ‐pfsa f pfsa— y prfk-
dæthgf f trfvès ib `f guf` b` ibghsar `akrf hetbrvbehr prakrbshvf y dfrkhef`dbetb be
`f rbf`hifi (@heic`ad, 6828: =>).
Ibetra ib` hegrbdbetf`hsda bxhstbe ihsthetas daib`as ib feæ`hshs qub vfe ibs-
ib b` feæ`hshs hegrbdbetf` shdp`b a b` hegrbdbetf`hsda ibsfrthgu`fia9. Fmarf chbe,
9 Wacrb b` pfrthgu`fr pubib gaesu`tfrsb ^frsaes (3>>;: 7>> f 733).
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bstas fcarifjbs gadpfrtbe betrb sä (y gae `f Ybaräf ib `f B`bggh÷e Sfghaef`) `f
hibf ib qub b` fgtar tadfiar ib ibghshaebs bs ue fgtar gbetrf`. X `fs gräthgfs f bstb
daib`a vfe f vbehr ib bstb gastfia.
3.7. ^ragbsas b hesthtughaebsMfghf ef`bs ib `f iègfif ib` ;>, Gmfr`bs @heic`ad, uea ib `as pfirbs oueifiarbs
ib` hegrbdbetf`hsda, gadhbezf f rbvhsfr sus hibfs f `f `uz ib `fs gräthgfs qub, ibsib
`as feæ`hshs p`urf`hstfs (`f hibf ib qub b` feæ`hshs ib fgtarbs ibcäf heg`uhr uef vfrhbifi
ib krupas b hetbrbsbs) qub rbgaeagäfe qub `f pfrthgu`frhifi ib `as pragbsas ib tadf
ib ibghsh÷e brf qub ea taias as hetbrbsbs y pfrthghpfetbs ib uef pa`äthgf hegrbdbetf`
brfe hkuf`bs: f`kueas tbeäfe dæs paibr qub atras. Be su `hcra ib 68;8, ^a`hthgs fei
Dfrlbts prapaeb `f ebgbshifi ib fjustfr `f vhsh÷e hegrbdbetf`hstf f trfvès ib uef‐oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs bstrftèkhgfs— gada ue dètaia shdp`hgfia y rbbxhva ib
`as prac`bdfs f sbr fcarifias par `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs2.
Bstf eubvf f`tbrefthvf f` ibcftb sacrb rfghaef`hifi y tadf ib ibghshaebs gaeshs-
tb be fef`hzfr `f ibghsh÷e púc`hgf gae b` prhsdf ib `fs rb`fghaebs bxhstbetbs be ue
dadbeta ifia betrb Bstfia, sbgtar prhvfia y saghbifi ghvh`. @f ibghsh÷e púc`hgf,
frkudbetfe, bs b` praiugta ib uef gadpbtbeghf betrb `as hetbrbsbs, `fs bstrftbkhfs y
`fs rbprbsbetfghaebs ib dú`thp`bs krupas arkfehzfias ‗beoaqub ``fdfia p`urf`hstf ‗
a uef mbrrfdhbetf davh`hzfif par ue pbquböa krupa ib fgtarbs ibtbetfiarbs ib`
paibr pfrf sf`vfkufrifr sus vf`arbs b hetbrbsbs ‗beoaqubs b`hthstfs a garparfthstfs ‗ .
Bstf tbrgbrf trfihgh÷e be `as beoaqub ib` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs rbtadf `f
gräthgf f` daib`a ib b`bggh÷e rfghaef` f pfrthr ib rbgaeagbr qub dugmas ib sus tb÷-
rhgas y `as ib` hegrbdbetf`hsda, f` sbr pfrthifrhas ib` heihvhiuf`hsda dbtaia`÷khga,
gaeshibrfe qub `fs bstrugturfs saghf`bs ea aorbgbe f `fs ghbeghfs saghf`bs b`bdbetas
bxp`hgfthvas sbegh``as y qub, par beib, mfy qub ibehr`fs uth`hzfeia `f Ybaräf ib `f
B`bggh÷e Sfghaef` (B`stbr, 688;). ^bra ±fgfsa ea bxhstbe ofgtarbs bstrugturf`bs qubgaeoardfe `fs ibghshaebs1 B` prac`bdf ib bstfs tbaräfs bs qub mfchtuf`dbetb gaesh-
ibrfrae f `as fgtarbs ga`bgthvas (bstfias, pfrthias pa`äthgas, krupas ib prbsh÷e, btgè-
tbrf) gada sh tadfrfe ibghshaebs heihvhiuf`bs, fgtufeia ib`hcbrfifdbetb sbkúe ue
úehga gaejueta ib grbbeghfs y prbobrbeghfs. ^ar bsta, fqub``fs bethifibs ga`bgthvfs
qub pagfs vbgbs pubibe sbr vhstfs gada gbetras ib ibghsh÷e, sub`be sbr fpfrtfifs
2 @heic`ad (68;;).
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
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ib `as daib`as ib b`bggh÷e rfghaef`. Be säetbshs, brf duy ihoägh` justhgfr fef`äthgf -
dbetb qub bstas daib`as b`hdhebe ib sus beoaqubs fqub``as ofgtarbs bstrugturf`bs,
gaeshibræeia`as shdp`bdbetb gada ‐f`ka ifia—.
Bs be bstb sbethia qub bstb thpa ib fcarifjb fehd÷ f atrfs garrhbetbs f rbibsgucrhr
sus praphfs rfägbs be b` bstuiha ib `as prap÷shtas ib `as fgtarbs. Be bstf eubvf btfpf(qub `fdfrbdas ib rfghaef`hifi ib pragbsas), as fcarifjbs tb÷rhgas trftfrae ib ifr
gubetf ib par què, fue be shtufghaebs iaeib ea mfcäf bquh`hcrha ib `fs prbobrbeghfs,
dugmas shstbdfs fpfrbgäfe bdpärhgfdbetb gada bstfc`bs. ^frf ifr rbspubstf f bstas
hetbrrakfetbs sb ihrhkh÷ `f dhrfif f `fs hesthtughaebs gada bsgbefrhas ib `f tadf
ib ibghshaebs. Be bstb gaetbxta, b` feæ`hshs ib` ghg`a ib pa`äthgf bstuva dfrgfia par
vfrhas bdbrkbetbs:
h) Daib`as qub fpuetfe mfghf fdchbetbs gadp`bjas ibetra ib `as guf`bs apb-rfe arkfehzfghaebs. @as beoaqubs ib `fs arkfehzfghaebs fpuetfe f qub `f
tadf ib ibghshaebs betrföf uef hetbrfggh÷e ib `as fgtarbs ibetra y oubrf ib
`fs arkfehzfghaebs y sus betareas a fdchbetbs ([h``hfdsad 68=8).
hh) @as daib`as qub fef`hzfe `fs rbibs ib fgtarbs (gaduehifibs ib pa`äthgfs,
trhæeku`as ib mhbrra, sucshstbdfs ib hetbrès, gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs a pa`h-
gy ebtwarls) y qub dubstrfe qub `f tadf ib ibghshaebs be `fs arkfehzfgha-
ebs sae ue pragbsa guyf ibsgrhpgh÷e ÷pthdf pubib betbeibrsb gada b` rb-
su`tfia ib dú`thp`bs hetbrfgghaebs betrb uef p`urf`hifi ib fgtarbs (^btbrs,688=< Jarifef 3>>;).
hhh) Daib`as qub gadhbezfe f vbr `as pragbsas ib tadf ib ibghsh÷e dæs gada
ue gfas qub gada uef sbgubeghf aribefif. @f ftbegh÷e sb gbetrf be `as
prac`bdfs qub fpfrbgbe gada f`ka brræthga a be fdchbetbs ib oubrtb he-
gbrthiudcrb (uef grhshs pa`äthgf, par bjbdp`a). @as pragbsas ib tadf ib
ibghsh÷e sae ue pragbsa hebstfc`b hdpu`sfia par as bvbetas, fs pbrsaefs y
b` rbgaeaghdhbeta ib atras prac`bdfs (Cfudkfrtdbr y Jaebs 6887).hv) @f tadf ib ibghshaebs vhstf gada ue pragbsa qub hdp`hgf hdpfgtas dæs
shdc÷`hgas qub sustfethvas (Bib`dfe, 68==).
Ibetra ib bstb gaetbxta, b` feæ`hshs ib `as ghg`as ib pa`äthgf bstuvhbrae heube-
ghfias par `as daib`as du`thvfrhias ib Krfmfd F``hsae (6883 \68?8T). Bstb futar,
fef`hzfeia `f grhshs ib `as dhsh`bs gucfeas (b` gaehgta Lbeebiy-Gfstra), gaestruy÷
ue daib`a ib tadf ibghsh÷e qub supaeb qub `fs ibghshaebs ef`bs ib `as kachbreas
sae shbdprb rfghaef`bs yf qub, pfrf ``bkfr f bsf ibghsh÷e, `as kachbreas thbebe be
gubetf prheghphas, f`tbrefthvfs y prap÷shtas be gaegarifeghfs gae `fs dbtfs pa`äthgfs
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qub b` kachbrea prapusa. Be bstb sbethia, b` kachbrea gada fgtar rfghaef` uehgfia
tadfræ ue ibghsh÷e f pfrthr ib` feæ`hshs ib ue ærca` ib f`tbrefthvfs, sb`bgghaefeia
`f f`tbrefthvf qub tbekf dfyar uth`hifi ef` a sbf ‐fqub``f qub begfcbzf taias `as
jubkas pashc`bs be aribe ib prbobrbeghf—. @f ibghsh÷e hdp`hgfræ ue feæ`hshs ib `as
gastas y cbebghas ib `f b`bggh÷e, y gaetbdp`fræ `as ebs y bstrftbkhfs ib pa`äthgf.
^astbrhardbetb, b` dhsda F``hsae (68== \68;6T) vf f dbjarfr su daib`a bxp`hgfthva,
hegarparæeia`b uef ihdbesh÷e arkfehzfghaef` (ib fmä qub sb `a ibeadheb daib`a
ib pragbsa arkfehzfghaef`) be iaeib bethbeib qub b` fgtar rfghaef` uehgfia (b` ka-
chbrea) bs be rbf`hifi ue gúdu`a ib ib arkfehzfghaebs uehgfifs oueghaef`dbetb y
gae ue krfia oubrtb ib futaeadäf pfrf pragbsfr `f heoardfgh÷e y tadfr ibghshaebs.
Iurfetb `fs ias ú`thdfs iègfifs, bstas fcarifjbs gaeg`uybrae be b` gbetrfr `as
feæ`hshs be b` bstuiha ib fs hesthtughaebs gada b` bsgbefrha be iaeib gaeuäfe fgta-rbs y pragbsas gadp`bjas. bra bstf vub`tf f `fs hesthtughaebs ea hdp`hgf b` rbtarea f
`as vhbjas beoaqubs qub bxp`hgfcfe b` oueghaefdhbeta ib `fs hesthtughaebs f pfrthr ib
su dfrga juräihga, shea f pfrthr ib eubvas fcarifjbs qub iurfetb `as ú`thdas vbhetb
föas sb mfe vbehia praiughbeia be ihsthetfs ihsghp`hefs. Be bstb sbethia, `fs rfägbs
ib bstb rbibsgucrhdhbeta pubibe rfstrbfrsb be vfrhas gfdpas ihsghp`hefrhas: `f tba-
räf bgae÷dhgf ib `fs bdprbsfs gfphtf`hstfs ([h``hfdsad, 68=8), `f mhstarhf (Ear-
tm, 6889< Eartm y Ymadfs, 68=;< Bvfes, Subsgmbdbybr y Wlagpa`, 68=2< Wlagpa`,
6883), `f sagha`akäf (Khiibes, 6882< Gambe y Frfta, 6883< ^utefd, 6887) a be `fghbeghf pa`äthgf (vbr heorf).
B` ebahesthtughaef`hsda bs ue obe÷dbea du`thofgèthga. Ea mfy uea, shea dugmas
ebahesthtughaef`hsdas, uehias par `f hibf ib qub `fs hesthtughaebs hdpartfe (Wgmb-
i`br, 688=). @fs hesthtughaebs pubibe sbr vhstf gada ‐b` pragbsa par b` guf` fiquhbrb
vf`ar y bstfch`hifi `fs arkfehzfghaebs y pragbihdhbetas— (Muethektae, 6886), ‐rbk`fs
ib jubka a `hdhtfghaebs hibfifs par b` madcrb qub ife oardf f `f hetbrfggh÷e mudf-
ef— (Eartm, 6882), ‐rbk`fs ib gadpartfdhbeta, bspbghf`dbetb rbspbgta f` pragbsa ibtadf ib ibghsh÷e— (Shlbr, 6886)< ue ‐gaejueta ib rbk`fs qub bstrugturfe `f hetbrfg-
gh÷e saghf` be oardfs pfrthgu`frbs y qub thbebe qub sbr gadpfrthifs y gaeaghifs par
taias `as dhbdcras ib uef gaduehifi rb`bvfetb a saghbifi— (Lehkmt, 6883).
Bstb rbtarea f `fs hesthtughaebs hdp`hgf `f ebgbshifi ib rbgaestruhr ue bsqubdf
dæs gadp`bja ib` pragbsa pa`äthga be b` guf` sb gaejukfe uef p`urf`hifi ib b`bdbe-
tas ib feæ`hshs: 6) `fs pashch`hifibs oäshgfs a rbgursas ihspaehc`bs (`fs ‐prbgaeihgha-
ebs saghf`bs—) qub `hdhtfe `fs pashc`bs apghaebs< 3) `fs prbobrbeghfs gaegrbtfs ib `as
fkbetbs qub hetbrvhbebe be `fs ibghshaebs< 7) `fs hesthtughaebs a rbk`fs ib ibghsh÷e
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
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praphfdbetb ihgmfs< 9) `fs tbeibeghfs ib gadpartfdhbeta acsbrvfc`bs be gfif dfr-
ga hesthtughaef` (Ga`adbr, 6886).
^frf bstf pbrspbgthvf, `as fkbetbs heihvhiuf`bs pbrshkube sus praphas praybgtas
ibetra ib ue gaetbxta qub bs ga`bgthvfdbetb gaestrböhia. Bstas gaestrböhdhbetas
tadfe `f oardf ib hesthtughaebs, `fs guf`bs thbebe rfägbs mhst÷rhgfs (be b` sbethia ibfrthgu`fghaebs rbshiuf`bs ib fgghaebs y b`bgghaebs pfsfifs) (Kaaihe, 688?). @fs hes-
thtughaebs, be tfeta bstrugturf, fpfrbgbe gada b` dfrga iaeib sb ibebe b` fcfehga
ib bstrftbkhfs y apartuehifibs ib `fs qub ihspaebe `as fgtarbs: ‐^ar bstrugturf pa-
`äthgf betbeibdas ue gaejueta ib hesthtughaebs, rbk`fs ib gadpartfdhbeta, eardfs,
ra`bs, hestf`fghaebs oäshgfs, bihghas y frgmhvas qub sae rb`fthvfdbetb hevfrhfc`bs
orbetb f `f sugbsh÷e ib `as heihvhiuas y rb`fthvfdbetb hdpbrdbfc`bs f `fs prbobrbe-
ghfs hihashegræshgfs y `fs bxpbgtfthvfs heihvhiuf`bs— (Dfrgm y A`sbe, 6887: 68).Ibsib bstf pbrspbgthvf, as eubvas fcarifjbs pashch`htfrae eubvfs gaetrhcughaebs
be b` gfdpa ib `f tbaräf ib `f b`bggh÷e rfghaef`. Wh, gada fef`hzfdas suprf, vfrhas
tb÷rhgas pbrghchbrae `f pashch`hifi ib ibsbquh`hcrhas ga`bgthvas gada rbsu`tfia ib
`fs prbobrbeghfs y `as gadpartfdhbetas heihvhiuf`bs iurfetb `f prhdbrf ofsb ib bstb
pragbsa tb÷rhga, `f sbkueif sb fcrh÷ gae `f prbkuetf fgbrgf ib `f bstfch`hifi ib bs-
tas gaetbxtas hesthtughaef`bs ±^ar què, sh bs tfe paga pracfc`b b` bquh`hcrha be `fs
prbobrbeghfs, mfy tfeta bquh`hcrha be `fs ibghshaebs pa`äthgfs1 B` gaegbpta qub sb
bstfc`bgh÷ pfrf bxp`hgfr fef`äthgfdbetb b` obe÷dbea ib shtufghaebs iaeib ea mfcäfbquh`hcrha ib `fs prbobrbeghfs pbra `as shstbdfs fpfrbgäfe bdpärhgfdbetb gada bstf-
c`bs oub b` ib bquh`hcrha heiughia bstrugturf`dbetb (Wmbps`b, 68=8).
Bstb rbgarrhia ib` feæ`hshs ib `as pragbsas ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf f trfvès ib `f dbtæ-
oarf ib` ghg`a ib pa`äthgf ea bstæ bxbeta ib gräthgfs. Be ue trfcfja yf g`æshga Wfcfthbr
y Jbelhes-Wdhtm (6887) bxpushbrae sus acjbghaebs f f hibf ib` feæ`hshs ib btfpfs. Be
bstb sbethia, rbdfrgfrae qub: (h) bstb thpa ib feæ`hshs ea fpartf ehekuef bxp`hgfgh÷e
gfusf` fgbrgf ib` pfsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ib uef btfpf f `f shkuhbetb< (hh) ea pubib sadbtbrsb f prubcfs bdpärhgfs< (hhh) gfrfgtbrhzf f `f oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs
gada ue pragbsa cæshgfdbetb ‐ib frrhcf mfghf fcfja— y ea tadf be gubetf f atras
fgtarbs, gada `as rbspaesfc`bs ib ifr ftbegh÷e f` púc`hga< (hv) `f eagh÷e ib` ghg`a ib
pa`äthgas ibsgaeagb b` dueia rbf` ib f oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs, qub hdp`hgf ehvb`bs
ib kachbrea y ghg`as ib hetbrfggh÷e< (v) ea if pfsa f uef vhsh÷e hetbkrf` ib` feæ`hshs
ib` pragbsa ib fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs eh f` feæ`hshs ib (gaeaghdhbeta, heoardfgh÷e, he-
vbsthkfgh÷e) qub sb usf be b` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, b` guf` ea sa`a agurrb
be `f btfpf ib ‐bvf`ufgh÷e—.
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7. Sfghaef`hifi y paibr: F daia ib hetraiuggh÷e
Fgbptbdas par ue dadbeta qub fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sae b` rbsu`tfia ib trfesfggha-
ebs (hetbrtbdparf`bs) betrb `as fgtarbs pa`äthgas. Bsfs trfesfgghaebs sb ``bvfe f gfca
be b` dfrga ib ue gaejueta ib rbk`fs (hesthtughaebs) ib` jubka pa`äthga qub dbihferb`fghaebs ib paibr. Ohef`dbetb, `fs hesthtughaebs pa`äthgfs ibpbeibe ib `fs gfrfgtb-
rästhgfs hesthtughaef`bs ib efturf`bzf gaesthtughaef` a mhst÷rhgf.
@f bxprbsh÷e hesthtughaebs ea sb rbbrb sa`fdbetb f ue gaejueta ib `bybs, shea
qub fcfrgf tfdchèe fgthtuibs, `bekufjbs, pfutfs ib gadpartfdhbeta, grbbeghfs, vf-
`arbs, btg. Wae `fs eardfs hdpbrfetbs be `f saghbifi be su sbethia dæs fdp`ha. Yhb-
ebe fibdæs uef gfrfgtbrästhgf pfrthgu`fr: ibcbe sbr gaeaghifs par taias `as qub
pfrthghpfe ib bsf saghbifi y pbrdhtbe arkfehzfr `as hetbrgfdchas betrb fgtarbs gae
ihsthetas rbgursas y paibrbs.Bsta eas ``bvf f` tbdf qub qubrbdas trftfr be bstb fpfrtfia: `f hibf ib paibr
saghf . Yaifs `fs tbaräfs gaeghcbe f` pragbsa ib tadf ib ibghshaebs gada f`ka da-
ib`fia y ibtbrdhefia par bstrugturfs ib paibr: g`fsb, rhqubzf, frrbk`as curagræthgas
a pa`äthgas, krupas ib hetbrès a gaeaghdhbetas tègehgas y/a praobshaef`bs pubibe
sbr f`kuefs ib `fs ihdbeshaebs qub `as futarbs b`hjfe pfrf bxp`hgfr `f hibf ib paibr
saghf`.
Whkuhbeia f frsaes (3>>;: 3;?) paibdas gaeshibrfr sbhs beoaqubs y sus vfrhfetbs:h) Daib`as b`hthstfs y ebab`hthstfs: `as daib`as b`hthstfs ib` pragbsa ib `fs
pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sasthbebe qub b` paibr sb gaegbetrfe be `fs dfeas ib
ueas gufetas krupas b heihvhiuas. Ib bstf dfebrf, `f tadf ib ibghshaebs
shbdprb supaeb ue pragbsa qub oueghaef vbetfjasfdbetb pfrf `fs è`htbs. F
prheghpha ib` shk`a pfsfia Kfbtfea Dasgf y [h`orbia ^frbta betbeihbrae
qub `f ibdagrfghf pubib vbrsb gada uef oardf ib pa`äthgf be qub `fs è`h-
tbs gadphtbe par actbebr b` vata papu`fr y fsä kfrfethzfr `f `bkhthdhifi ib
su prbiadheha. Sacbrt Dhgmb`s fcari÷ b` bstuiha ib `as pfrthias pa`äthgasibsib `f pasturf ib `f bxhstbeghf ib uef ‐`by ib mhbrra ib `f a`hkfrquäf—: `fs
è`htbs kbebrfe sus praphas hetbrbsbs y acjbthvas, ihsthetas ib `as hetbrbsbs
ib `f dfyaräf ib `as ghuififeas. Dfx [bcbr bethbeib qub `as pragbsas ib
rfghaef`hifi curagræthgas ib` paibr ``bvf f qub bstf oardf ib arkfehzfgh÷e
rbbdp`fgb atrfs dæs ibdagræthgfs. Jasbpm Wgmudpbtbr betbeih÷ qub ibetra
ib `f ibdagrfghf `fs è`htbs sb `bkhthdfe be b` dbrgfia pa`äthga gadpubsta
ib pfrthias y è`htbs rhvf`bs. ^astbrhardbetb @fswb`` (682>) betbeih÷ qubb` bstuiha ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs brf b` bstuiha ib `f heubeghf y ib `as
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frdf qub be ue shstbdf gfphtf`hstf b` pragbsa ib tadf ib ibghshaebs fgtuf`
`trfeia y bxg`uybeia `fs ibdfeifs fethgfphtf`hstfs a `fs qub fdbefzfe
`as hetbrbsbs ib` gfphtf`. Ib bstf dfebrf, pfrf prbsbrvfr b` aribe saghf`
y fsbkurfrsb su `bkhthdhifi ibdagræthgf, b` bstfia hdp`bdbetf pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs dbihfetb `f ihstrhcugh÷e ib rbgursas saghf`bs be oardf ib ‐kfstasaghf`— (A‘Gaeear, 68=6).
hv) Garparfthsda= : bstb krupa ib tb÷rhgas bethbeib qub `as pragbsas ib ibgh-
sh÷e bstæe dbihfias par ue shstbdf ib rbprbsbetfgh÷e ib hetbrbsbs, `as guf-
`bs bstæe arkfehzfias be ue ‐eúdbra `hdhtfia ib gftbkaräfs— f `fs qub b`
bstfia b mf atarkfia b` daeapa`ha ib f rbprbsbetfgh÷e f gfdcha ib ghbrtas
gaetra`bs be `f sb`bggh÷e ib sus `äibrbs y `f frthgu`fgh÷e ib sus ibdfeifs y
fpayas (Wgmdhttbr, 68;9). Ibetra ib bstas fcarifjbs sb ibstfgfe `as bstu-ihas qub hetbetfe vbr as pragbsas ib ibghsh÷e gada ue pftr÷e ib rb`fghaebs
qub cusgf ofgh`htfr `f gaapbrfgh÷e y rbiughr b` gaehgta betrb gfphtf`, dfea
ib acrf b hetbrbsbs arkfehzfias. Be bstb sbethia, b` garparfthsda bs vhsta
gada ue frrbk`a pa`äthga qub apbrf be ouegh÷e ib `as hetbrbsbs ib` gfphtf`
(Jbssap, 688>) a gada ue `ädhtb ib `f ibdagrfghf `hcbrf` (A`sae, 68=?).
v) ^raobshaef`hsda: uef prbagupfgh÷e ib `as fef`hstfs gaetbdparæebas mf
shia ibehr mfstf què pueta `fs è`htbs praobshaef`bs mfe fiquhrhia paibr f`
dadbeta ib tadf ib ibghshaebs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs be `fs ibdagrfghfs`hcbrf`bs. Bstb krupa ib futarbs, qub ibrhvfe ib `as feæ`hshs ebab`hthstfs,
bethbeibe qub b` paibr praobshaef` be ibtbrdhefifs ærbfs ib kachbrea ea
bstæ orfkdbetfia y ihspbrsa, shea qub `f tadf ib ibghshaebs pubib qubifr
be dfeas ib krupas ib praobshaef`bs qub gaetra`be `as pragbsas ib hdp`b-
dbetfgh÷e, ofvarbghbeia `as hetbrbsbs ib` prapha krupa (Iue`bfvy, 68=6<
H`hgm, 68;;).
7.6. @f hibf ib gfdpa ib jubka
Eubvfdbetb va`vfdas f `fs hesthtughaebs. Wh betbeibdas qub `fs hesthtughaebs sae
rbk`fs ib` jubka, bsta bs, bethifibs fcstrfgtfs guya úehga prap÷shta gaeshstb be pbr-
dhthr `f hetbrfggh÷e saghf` y qub, ib mbgma, daib`fe y ibtbrdhefe b` sbethia qub
tadf `f hetbrfggh÷e mudfef, bs ebgbsfrha fef`hzfr g÷da bstfs hesthtughaebs hegbe-
= B` beoaqub garparfthstf a garparfthvhstf oub prbvhfdbetb trftfia be as gfpätu`as HH y HHH.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
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thvfe y ibshegbethvfe ibtbrdhefifs gaeiugtfs, gaeihghaefeia `fs ibghshaebs ib `as
fgtarbs a `as jukfiarbs.
Ibetra ib bstb gaetbxta fpfrbgb `f hibf ib gfdpa a dftrhz ib jubka gada b`
bspfgha a `f frbef pa`äthgf iaeib fef`hzfr `as pragbsas ib tadf ib ibghshaebs ib `fs
pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.^frf Dhgmfb` Dfee (688;: 37-3;) `f pa`äthgf sb gaesthtuyb be ue bspfgha be b`
guf` sb betrbgruzfe gaetrfihgtarhfdbetb ihobrbetbs betrfdfias ib rb`fghaebs saghf-
`bs. Be bstb bspfgha gaevbrkbe, ib oardf ibsaribefif y gfdchfetb, `fs ihsthetfs
‐oubetbs sustfethvfs ib` paibr saghf`—, qub sb arkfehzfe y ihoueibe ib dfebrfs bs-
pfghf` b mhst÷rhgfdbetb bspbgägfs. @f fggh÷e pa`äthgf (`fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs) sb shtúf
ibetra ib bstb betrfdfia y ea be ue vfgäa rb`fghaef`. ^frthbeia ib bstas supubstas,
Dfee puib sastbebr `f bxhstbeghf fef`äthgf ib ihvbrsfs ‐dftrhgbs ib paibr saghf`—qub bxp`hgfe `f oardf pfrthgu`fr be qub agurrbe `as sugbsas mhst÷rhgas. Ib bstf df-
ebrf, bethbeib, sb pubib bsgfpfr ib `as feæ`hshs shdp`hstfs qub prbtbeibe bxp`hgfr
obe÷dbeas gadp`bjas gada b` Bstfia a b` gfphtf`hsda ibsib pbrspbgthvfs rbiuggha-
ehstfs ib` paibr saghf`8.
^bra, g÷da paibdas ibehr uef dftrhz ib pa`äthgfs1 Ref dftrhz bs ue `ukfr a
dbiha iaeib sb praiugb a ibsfrra``f f`ka, uef bstrugturf a fdchbetb iaeib uef
fgthvhifi a pragbsa pfrthgu`fr agurrb a sb ibsfrra``f. Ref dftrhz pa`äthgf bs ue shstb-
df ib vfrhfc`bs a gaestrböhdhbetas qub jfe `ädhtbs y pracfch`hifibs ihobrbeghf`bs
pfrf `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib hetbrbsbs saghf`bs y pfrf b` f`gfegb ib acjbthvas pa`äthgas. @f
dftrhz pa`äthgf ib uef saghbifi jf `ädhtbs y fshkef pracfch`hifibs ihobrbetbs pfrf
b` ibsfrra``a y `f praiuggh÷e ib ihsthetas pragbsas púc`hgas. Be bstb sbethia, paib-
das pbesfr f `f dftrhz pa`äthgf gada ue shstbdf ib vfrhfc`bs bstrugturf`bs, ib thpa
8 Ibsib `f pbrspbgthvf ftheafdbrhgfef, vfrhas futarbs heshsthbrae gae b feæ`hshs dftrhghf`. Dfrgb`aGfvfrazzh (68=;) betbeih÷ qub `fs saghbifibs @ftheafdbrhgfefs ibsib b` pbräaia ib betrbkubrrfs sbfrthgu`frae ibetra ib a è` `fd÷ ‐dftrhz bstfia gèetrhgf—. Be Fdèrhgf @fthef ibsib as föas 7> mfstf`as ;> sb grhstf`hz÷ be su oardf dæs g`æshgf f dftrhz bstfia gèetrhgf. Be b``f b` Bstfia fsudb uef gbe-trf`hifi dfyar heg`usa qub `f qub agup÷ be sus vbrshaebs burapbfs. Be atrfs pf`fcrfs, sh b` b`bdbetaqub thphgf f bsf dftrhz bs b` ra` qub f pa`äthgf agupf be su gbetra, f pfrthgu`frhifi ib fs saghbifibs
`ftheafdbrhgfefs bstæ be b` `ukfr mbkbd÷ehga qub b` Bstfia, gada fpfrfta heg`ushvb, gaeshkub be `fsaghbifi. Ib `f dhsdf dfebrf, Dfeub` Fetaeha Kfrrbt÷e (3>>3) mfc`f ib uef iac`b dftrhz ib fgta-rbs y fggh÷e ga`bgthvf, qub è` ibeadhef ‐dftrhz efghaef` papu`fr—. ^frf Kfrrbt÷e b` tèrdhea dftrhzshkehgf bethifi prheghpf`, kbebrfiarf ib atrfs. Ib bstf dfebrf, bxhstb uef dftrhz qub b` futar
ibeadhef gaekurfthvf, cfsfif be fgtarbs dæs `hkfias f `as praybgtas mhst÷rhga-bstrugturf`bs y f `f pa`äthgf, jueta gae atrf be qub `as fgtarbs bstæe dæs vhegu`fias f arkfehzfghaebs b hestrudbetas dæssaghf`bs y gu`turf`bs. _a`vbrbdas sacrb bstb pfrthgu`fr be b` Gfpätu`a _HHH.
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pa`äthga-hesthtughaef` b hiba`÷khga qub, (h) jfe `as `ädhtbs ib ofgthch`hifi pfrf `f
rbf`hzfgh÷e ib `as hetbrbsbs y b` f`gfegb ib `as acjbthvas pa`äthgas< (hh) ibebe pracf-
ch`hifibs ihobrbeghf`bs pfrf `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib hetbrbsbs y b` f`gfegb ib acjbthvas pa`ä-
thgas ofgthc`bs< (hhh) crheife f as ihsthetas fgtarbs ue gaeaghdhbeta a dfpba ib g÷da
oueghaefe `fs rbf`hzfghaebs sagha-pa`äthgfs y, par `as tfeta, heuybe `f pbrgbpgh÷e
sacrb `as `ädhtbs ib ofgthch`hifi y dæs bghbetbs gursas ib fggh÷e pfrf b` f`gfegb ib
acjbthvas y rbf`hzfgh÷e ib hetbrbsbs (Fguöf, 6882: 6?).
@f dftrhz bs ue shstbdf pfrf fcarifr fef`äthgfdbetb `as gaehgtas ib hetbrbsbs
be b` guf` `as rbsu`tfias ibpbeibe ib `f fgtufgh÷e ib `as pfrthghpfetbs pbra ehekuef
oubrzf gaegrbtf gaetra`f b` ibsfrra``a ib as mbgmas. Ehekuef ib as ihsthetas fgtarbs
pfrthghpfetbs gaeagb ib fetbdfea b` ibsbe`fgb ib `fs bstrftbkhfs pfrthgu`frbs, pubs
`fs gaesbgubeghfs ib sus fgghaebs ibpbeibe ib `fs fgghaebs ib `as ibdæs yb ea pub-ibe prbvbrsb ueävagfdbetb.
Be gaesbgubeghf, ibsib b` pueta ib vhstf ib gfif pfrthghpfetb, `as rbsu`tfias sae
heghbrtas: uef dftrhz ib jubka fpfrbgb gada ue shstbdf be b` guf` taia b` dueia
mfgb `a qub bspbrf qub `b sbf dæs ofvarfc`b< `ubka sb `fezfe `as ifias y sb bspbrf
gadpracfr guæ` bs b` rbsu`tfia. Be bstb sbethia, uef dftrhz kbebrf uef fpfrhbeghf ib
hegbrthiudcrb parqub sb trftf ib ue shstbdf ib fggh÷e bstrftèkhgf gbetrf`hzfif, be b`
guæ` `f heoardfgh÷e bs heb`uihc`bdbetb `agf`.
Fmarf chbe, b` mbgma ib qub `f hegbrthiudcrb sbf hembrbetb f uef dftrhz ib pa`äthgfsea shkehgf qub taia sbf pashc`b a qub efif pubif prbvbrsb: hegbrthiudcrb pubib shkeh-
gfr qub `as fgtarbs ea sfcbe qub pubib agurrhr, qub sfcbe `a qub bs pashc`b pbra ea `a
qub bs pracfc`b, a qub sfcbe a qub bs pashc`b y pracfc b pbra ea què agurrhræ. @f ibda-
grfghf sa`a bs heghbrtf be bstb ú`thda sbethia: `as fgtarbs sfcbe `a qub bs pashc`b, pubsta
qub `as ibsbe`fgbs pashc`bs vhbebe ibtbrdhefias par b` dfrga hesthtughaef`< sfcbe `a
qub bs pracfc`b qub sugbif pubs f pracfch`hifi ib ue ibsbe`fgb gaegrbta ibpbeib ib f
gadchefgh÷e ib` dfrga hesthtughaef` y ib `as rbgursas gae qub hetbrvbekfe `fs ihsthetfsoubrzfs pa`äthgfs be `f gadpbtbeghf. @a qub ea sfcbe bs b` rbsu`tfia gaegrbta.
@f hegbrthiudcrb hembrbetb pbrdhtb bdprbeibr fgghaebs hestrudbetf`bs. @f pa-
shch`hifi ib fshkefr pracfch`hifibs f `fs gaesbgubeghfs ib sus fgtufghaebs pbrdhtb
f `as fgtarbs mfgbrsb uef hibf ib sus bxpbgtfthvfs y gf`gu`fr b` gursa ib fggh÷e
dæs gaevbehbetb pfrf b``as. Wh `as rbsu`tfias bstuvhbsbe prbibtbrdhefias a oubsbe
gadp`btfdbetb heibtbrdhefias, `as krupas ea tbeiräfe ehekuef dathvfgh÷e pfrf
arkfehzfrsb gada pfrthghpfetbs. Be ue pragbsa pa`äthga ibdagræthga taifs `fs oubr-
zfs ibcbe `ugmfr rbpbthifdbetb pfrf mfgbr rbf`hifi sus hetbrbsbs. Wus rbspbgthvfs
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Fmarf chbe, sfcbdas qub be bstas gfdpas dftrhghf`bs ib jubka pfrthghpfe fgtarbs
qub trftfe ib dfxhdhzfr sus bstrftbkhfs be `f prasbgugh÷e ib sus ebs. Bstf pa`hth-
zfgh÷e ib ue tbdf a prac`bdf saghf` kbebrf`dbetb sb rbprbsbetf gada uef eubvf
prapubstf ib pa`äthgf a f tbrefthvf f f pa`äthgf púc`hgf bxhstbetb a stftus qua. Bs par
bsa qub be b` pr÷xhda fpfrtfia fef`hzfrbdas f`kuefs ib `fs bstrftbkhfs fef`äthgfs pfrf vbr g÷da pfrthghpfe `as fgtarbs ib `as pragbsas ib ibghsh÷e.
9. FGYASBW X GAA^BSFGH×E
Gada vhdas fetbrhardbetb, `f futaeadäf ib `as ibghsarbs bstæ be krfe dbihif `h-
dhtfif par b` pbsa ib `fs hesthtughaebs: taif ibghsh÷e púc`hgf sb b`fcarf sacrb rbs-
trhgghaebs.
Fmarf chbe, taias bstas feæ`hshs pfrtbe ib gaeshibrfr `as gadpartfdhbetas heih-
vhiuf`bs. Bstb bs b` gfsa ib as fcarifjbs praphas ib f Ybaräf ib `f B`bggh÷e Sfghaef`
y ib krfe pfrtb ib` Hegrbdbetf`hsda. Ibetra ib bstb gaetbxta, paibdas betbeibdas
par fgtar f f`kuhbe qub pubib rbgaeagbr sus hetbrbsbs y prbobrbeghfs y qub fibdæs
thbeb `f gfpfghifi ib pbrsbkuhr`as.
^frf fef`hzfr g÷da paibdas fcarifr b` bstuiha ib `fs ibghshaebs heihvhiuf`bs
be shtufghaebs púc`hgfs, ebgbshtfdas gaeagbr f`kueas ib `as dfrgas fef`äthgas qub
bstuihfe b` tbdf ib `f fggh÷e ga`bgthvf be dftbrhf ib gaapbrfgh÷e y gaehgta. B``as
sae, be aribe ib bxpashgh÷e, `as daib`as bspfghf`bs, `f tbaräf ib jubkas, b` feæ`hshs
prheghpf`/fkbetb, b` feæ`hshs ib` tfdföa ib `as krupas y `f eagh÷e ib ibpbeibeghf ib
`f trfybgtarhf.
9.6. Daib`as bspfghf`bs
Atrf oardf ib fef`hzfr guæ`bs sae `as pragbsas ib ibghsh÷e be `fs pa`äthgfs púc`h-
gfs bs fef`hzfr g÷da b`hkbe `as ghuififeas. Be `fs b`bgghaebs pa`äthgfs `as pfrthias pa`äthgas aorbgbe f`tbrefthvfs pa`äthgfs y `as vatfetbs bsgakbe dbihfetb su vata be-
trb b``fs. Bsta hdp`hgf pa`hthzfr ue tbdf, a sbf, uef prapubstf ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf
sacrb ue tbdf f daib ib f`tbrefthvf f `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf bxhstbetb a stftus qua.
@fs prapubstfs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs gadpartfe daibs ihobrbetbs ib pravbbr chbebs
púc`hgas, fsä gada ibghshaebs rbihstrhcuthvfs, qub pubibe ifr ihobrbetbs krfias ib
sfthsofggh÷e f pbrsaefs gae hetbrbsbs ihvbrsas. Ghbrtas tbdfs pa`hthzfias sb cfsfe
be fethkufs ihvhshaebs saghf`bs (g`hvfjbs) pbra `as pfrthias pa`äthgas pubibe paebr ib
rb`hbvb atras tbdfs qub ea rbbjbe uef ibdfeif saghf` prbbxhstbetb.
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Fetmaey Iawes (68;2) prapusa ue daib`a pfrf rbprbsbetfr `as bspfghas pa`äthgas
f pfrthr ib rbprbsbetfr ihobrbetbs prapubstfs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs y ihsthetfs prbobrbe-
ghfs ib `as vatfetbs gada pashghaebs pashc`bs f `a `frka ib ue gaetheua. Hdfkhebdas,
par bjbdp`a, qub b` tbdf bs Dftrhdaeha Hkuf`htfrha y qub `fs ihobrbetbs pashghaebs
rbprbsbetfe pashghaebs f ofvar a be gaetrf ib `f fpacfgh÷e ib uef `by ib hkuf`ifikbeèrhgf pfrf b` dftrhdaeha ghvh`. @f ihstfeghf ‐bspfghf`— betrb pashghaebs rbprbsbetf
`fs ihobrbeghfs betrb `fs prapubstfs ib pa`äthgfs a betrb `fs prbobrbeghfs ib as vatfetbs.
Iawes fef`hzf `f bghbeghf ib `fs ihobrbetbs prapubstfs pa`äthgfs f pfrthr ib `f
hibethgfgh÷e ib `fs prbobrbeghfs ib` ‐vatfetb dbihfea—. Wh `a rbgubrife ib sus g`f-
sbs ib dftbdæthgf, `f dbihfef bs b` pueta qub thbeb dbeas ib `f dhtfi ib `as puetas
ib ue `fia y dbeas ib `f dhtfi f` atra `fia. @f prbobrbeghf ib` vatfetb dbihfea
dhehdhzf `f sudf ib `fs ihstfeghfs ib `fs prbobrbehgfs ib taias `as vatfetbs y, par `atfeta, sb pubib gaeshibrfr qub dfxhdhzf `f uth`hifi saghf`.
Wupaekfe `f gadpbtbeghf betrb ias pfrthias. B` pfrthia qub bstæ dæs gbrgf ib `f
pashgh÷e ib` vatfetb dbihfea kfef `f gadpbtbeghf. Be b` `frka p`fza sh `fs pa`äthgfs
sae bxhtasfs `as ias pfrthias tbeiræe hegbethvas pfrf gaevbrkbr be tarea f `f pash-
gh÷e ib` vatfetb dbihfea. Wh par b` gaetrfrha, bxhstb ue fdp`ha eúdbra ib pfrthias
pa`äthgas, `f fkbeifs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs pashc`bs sb fdp`äf.
Be iègfifs pastbrharbs `as daib`as bspfghf`bs gaetheufrae su ibsfrra``a. B` pra-
c`bdf sb prbsbetfcf be qub, be saghbifibs dæs a dbeas madakèebfs, `as tbdfs pa-`äthgas pubibe rbprbsbetfrsb be uef sa`f ihdbesh÷e bspfghf`, shbdprb `fs pashghaebs
ib `as pfrthias y `as tbdfs bstèe garrb`fghaefifs. ^bra sh dú`thp`bs pfrthias fiap-
tfe pasghaebs ea garrb`fghaefifs be ihobrbetbs tbdfs surkbe dú`thp`bs ihdbeshaebs
(Mhehgm y Duekbr, 3>>7). Fsä, ue pfrthia pubib bstfr ib fgubria gae b` Dftrhdaeha
Hkuf`htfrha pbra ea gae `f Fshkefgh÷e Rehvbrsf` par Mhja (FRM). Yf` bs fsä qub
dugmas futarbs sukhbrbe qub, gufeia dfyar bs b` eúdbra ib tbdfs, dfyar bs b` eú-
dbra ib pfrthias qub pubib mfcbr gae pashghaebs ihspfrbs be `as tbdfs (Yffkbpbrfy Kraodfe, 68=2).
9.3. Ybaräf ib Jubkas
@f Ybaräf ib Jubkas eas shrvb pfrf fef`hzfr `fs hetbrfgghaebs mudfefs be shtufghaebs
bstrftèkhgfs be `fs qub `fs ibghshaebs heihvhiuf`bs ibpbeibe ib `a qub gfif pfrthgh-
pfetb bspbrf qub mfkfe `as ibdæs.
@f bstrugturf dæs cæshgf pfrf rbprbsbetfr `as prac`bdfs ib `f fggh÷e ga`bgthvf pfrf `f pravhsh÷e ib chbebs púc`hgas bs b` Ih`bdf ib` prhshaebra.
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@f mhstarhf bs `f shkuhbetb. Ias prhshaebras, saspbgmasas ib ue grhdbe, sae frrbs-
tfias y begfrgb`fias be ias gb`ifs sbpfrfifs. B` sgf` vhshtf f uea ib `as prhshaebras
y `b ihgb: ‐Ybeka uef cubef eathghf y uef df`f eathghf pfrf ustbi. @f cubef eathghf bs
qub sh ehekuea ib ustbibs gaebsf su grhdbe, sa`a pairbdas gaeibefr`as f ias föas
ib prhsh÷e y sh ustbi gaebsf, ya gaevbegbrè f` jurfia ib qub ustbi bs ue madcrb frrb- pbethia y ib qub b` pbrvbrsa bs su gadpföbra, ib daia qub ustbi qubifräf `hcrb be
ue föa y è` pbrdfebgbräf be prhsh÷e ihbz föas. @f df`f eathghf bs qub vay f mfgbr`b `f
dhsdf aobrtf f su gadpföbra—. ‐±X què agurrhräf sh fdcas gaeobsæsbdas1—, prbkuetf
b` prhshaebra. ‐Betaegbs ea tbeirè rfz÷e pfrf cbebghfr f ehekuea ib ustbibs, ibjfrè
qub `f justhghf tadb su gursa y, par b` thpa ib grhdbe, bsthda qub `as gaeibefræe f`
dbeas f agmas föas—. Fsä, `as prhshaebras sb begubetrfe fetb b` shkuhbetb ih`bdf:
Wh ya gaebsa y b` atra tfdchèe: rbghchrbdas = föas gfif uea.Wh ya gaebsa y b` atra ea: 6 föa pfrf dä y 6> föas pfrf è`.
Wh ya ea gaebsa y b` atra sä: 6> föas pfrf dä y 6 föa pfrf è`.
Wh ya ea gaebsa y è` tfdpaga: 3 föas gfif uea.
Be gaesbgubeghf, gfif prhshaebra phbesf qub sa`a pubibe pfsfr ias gasfs: qub b`
atra gaebsb a qub ea gaebsb. ‐Wh gaebsf, bs dbjar qub ya tfdchèe `a mfkf, par -
qub ib `a gaetrfrha db qubifrè 6> föas be `f gærgb`. Wh ea gaebsf y ya sä, betaegbs
pairè cbebghfrdb ib `f aobrtf ib` sgf` y qubifrè `hcrb be ue föa—. @f gaeg`ush÷e
bs qub mfkf a qub mfkf b` atra, a dbjar bs gaeobsfr. Fdcas rfzaefe ib hkuf` daia,gae `a guf` fdcas gaebsfe y sb qubife be `f gærgb` dugma dæs thbdpa ib` qub `bs
mfcräf tagfia sh ehekuea muchbrf gaeobsfia (Fcf` Dbihef y Jfhdb, 3>>?).
B` ibsbe`fgb bs qub `as heihvhiuas rfghaef`bs qub fgtúfe heibpbeihbetbdbetb ib
`a qub mfkf b` atra ea pubibe f`gfezfr b` rbsu`tfia bvhibetbdbetb ibsbfc`b ib `f ga-
apbrfgh÷e dutuf. Be b` `bekufjb ib `f Ybaräf ib Jubka ibghdas qub gfif fgtar thbeb
bstrftbkhf iadhefetb ib ea gaapbrfr. Be b` rbsu`tfia ib bquh`hcrha hebghbetb ib`
jubka, taias as pfrthghpfetbs bstfræe pbar qub sh muchbrfe gaapbrfia. Bstb rbsu`tfiabs uef rbprbsbetfgh÷e ib` prac`bdf ib` ‐karr÷e— a ‐pa`hz÷e6>— be `f fggh÷e ga`bg-
thvf: gfif fgtar heihvhiuf` pbrshkub b` hetbrès qub gaeshibrf dbjarf pfrf sä gufeia
prbtbeib uth`hzfr `as chbebs púc`hgas she gaetrhcuhr f su pravhsh÷e, pbra f` ef` efihb
gaapbrf eh pubib sfthsofgbr su hetbrès gadúe (Ga`adbr, 3>>8: 27).
B` feæ`hshs ib jubkas gada b` Ih`bdf ib` prhshaebra sb cfsf be gaeshibrfr jubkas
ib uef sa`f pfrthif. B` jubka sb fkatf be f dhsdf ibghsh÷e. bra què pfsf sh f kbetb
6> ‐^a`hz÷e—: usufrha ib ue chbe púc`hga qub ea gaetrhcuyb f su praiuggh÷e.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
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jubkf pfrthifs rbpbthifs. Vuhzæs betaegbs tbekf sbethia gaapbrfr f e ib rbghchr `f
gaapbrfgh÷e ib atras be b` outura. @f pashch`hifi ib gaapbrfr be pfrthifs rbpbthifs
be shtufghaebs ib` thpa ib` Ih`bdf ib` prhshaebra sb ibrhvf ib ue grhtbrha ib ibghsh÷e
ibeadhefia ‐ib tadf y ifgf—. ^frf Sacbrt Fxb`rai (3>>7) `f bstrftbkhf iadhefetb
be `as jubkas ib ‐Yadf y ifgf— sb cfsf be rbspaeibr gae `f dhsdf daebif f` gad- partfdhbeta ib as ibdæs. Gaeshstb be gadbezfr gaapbrfeia sh `as ibdæs gaapbrfe
y ibsbrtfr sh `as ibdæs ibsbrtfe. Bstf gaapbrfgh÷e pubib praiughr uef gaapbrfgh÷e
sastbehif gufeia b` eúdbra ib hetbrfgghaebs bs heibehia.66 @f rbghpraghifi rbpb-
thif pubib oarjfr uef cubef rbputfgh÷e y gaefezf betrb `as dhbdcras ib` krupa,
fsä gada `f gaestruggh÷e ib hesthtughaebs qub ofvarbzgfe dæs fúe `f gaapbrfgh÷e.
Atra jubka hetbrbsfetb bs b` ``fdfia ‐Jubka ib `f kf``hef— papu`frhzfia par `f
pb`ägu`f Sbcb`ib she gfusf ib Jfdbs Ibfe: ias fia`bsgbetbs gaeiugbe shdu`tæebf-dbetb sus futas mfstf b` carib ib ue cfrrfega y orbefe a sf`tfe ib` gagmb be b` ú`th-
da dadbeta pashc`b. B` qub sf`tf a orbef b` gagmb dæs gbrgf ib` prbghphgha kfef y b`
atra bs ue gacfrib a uef ‐kf``hef—. Bstb jubka pubib `bvfr f ias rbsu`tfias pashc`bs,
gfif uea ib `as guf`bs gadpartf ghbrta krfia ib gaapbrfgh÷e betrb `as pfrthghpfetbs:
orbefr (gaapbrfr) a sbkuhr (ibsbrtfr). B` rbsu`tfia bs uef rbprbsbetfgh÷e ib `fs vbe-
tfjfs ib `f gaapbrfgh÷e ueh`ftbrf` be `f pravhsh÷e y rbpraiuggh÷e ib ghbrtas chbebs
bsgfsas, gada par bjbdp`a, fqub``as chbebs dbihafdchbetf`bs qub pubibe tbebr ue
udcrf` ib gftæstraob (`f gfzf ib cf``befs, `f gaetfdhefgh÷e ib `f gubegf DftfezfShfgmub`a, pfrf ifr f`kueas bjbdp`as).
Atra ib as jubkas dæs uth`hzfias bs b` ‐Jubka ib` ghbrva—. B` rb`fta arhkhef` ib` jub-
ka rbdhtb f` hetbeta ib arkfehzfr `f fggh÷e ga`bgthvf pfrf `f gfzf ib f`kueas fehdf`bs
gadbsthc`bs. B` supubsta cæshga bs qub ehekúe heihvhiua pubib gfzfr ue ghbrva par sä
dhsda, a sbf, efihb pubib praparghaefr taia ue chbe ga`bgthva f gadpfrthr. ^bra db-
ihfetb `f ibsbrgh÷e ib` bquhpa, guf`quhbr dhbdcra pubib gfzfr ue fehdf` (uef `hbcrb,
par bjbdp`a) y gaesbkuhr ue chbe prhvfia pfrf `bvfrsb f f cagf. Ihgma ib atrf dfeb-rf, f ibsbrgh÷e dutuf (gfzfr hbcrbs) bs ue rbsu`tfia ib bquh`hcrha, pbra f gaapbrfgh÷e
dutuf (gfzfr ue ghbrva y gadpfrthr`a) tfdchèe bs ue rbsu`tfia ib bquh`hcrha qub ea
ibcbräf sbr ihoägh` ib f`gfezfr pfrf `as pfrthghpfetbs be su rbgäpraga cbebgha.
66 Wh `as fgtarbs sfcbe qub sb trftf ib `f ú`thdf raeif ib ue jubka pubibe betbeibr qub ibjfræe ib sbrdhbdcras ib uef gaduehifi qub gadpfrtb ue hetbrès gadúe y bsa trfesoardf `f ú`thdf raeif be ue
jubka ib` Ih`bdf ib` prhshaebra. @f gaapbrfgh÷e dutuf bs dæs pracfc`b gufeia dfyar sbf `f hegbrth-iudcrb fgbrgf ib `f iurfgh÷e ib `f rb`fgh÷e ga`bgthvf y gufeia dfyar sbf b` eúdbra ib hetbrfgghaebs(Fxb`rai, 3>>7: 96).
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9.7. ^rheghpf`/fkbetb
B` bsqubdf ib feæ`hshs ‐prheghpf`/fkbetb— thbeb gada acjbthva ibtbrdhefr as rfskas
oueifdbetf`bs ib uef ib `fs rb`fghaebs dæs orbgubetbs ib `as prac`bdfs ib `fs ib-
dagrfghfs rbprbsbetfthvfs y fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: f ib`bkfgh÷e a rb`fgh÷e jbrærquhgfib hetbrgfdcha betrb uef pbrsaef a krupas ib pbrsaefs rbvbsthias ib futarhifi, b`
prheghpf`, y ib atrfs y atrfs f `fs guf`bs sb `bs ib`bkf bstf futarhifi, b` fkbetb. @f
ib`bkfgh÷e gfrfgtbrhzf rb`fghaebs duy vfrhfifs: betrb `as ghuififeas y `as b`bkhias<
betrb `as dh`htfetbs y `as ihrhkbetbs ib ue pfrthia< betrb b` kachbrea y `f dfyaräf
pfr`fdbetfrhf< betrb `as dhehstras y sus curagrfghfs< betrb uef fidhehstrfgh÷e gbe-
trf` y uef fidhehstrfgh÷e `agf`< btgètbrf. Be `f `htbrfturf bspbgägf, `as beoaqubs ib
prheghpf`/fkbetb mfe shia uth`hzfias pfrf fef`hzfr `fs rb`fghaebs betrb b` ^aibr Bjb-
guthva y b` ^aibr @bkhs`fthva (Mucbr y Wmhpfe 3>>>)< betrb b` ^aibr Bjbguthva y su curagrfghf (DgGucches, Ea`` y [bhekfst, 68;=)< a f` hetbrhar ib `fs arkfehzfghaebs
bgae÷dhgfs (Dab, 68=9).
@f ib`bkfgh÷e pbrdhtb uef bgfghf be `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib `fs tfrbfs f pfrthr ib
cusgfr ue krfia ib bspbghf`hzfgh÷e ib `as fkbetbs. Be bstb sbethia, `as fkbetbs fgu-
du`fe heoardfgh÷e y gadpbtbeghf qub oartf`bgbe `f fggh÷e púc`hgf. Whe bdcfrka, `f
ib`bkfgh÷e grbf b` rhbska ib qub b` fkbetb ea ibbeif ef`dbetb `as hetbrbsbs ib`
prheghpf`. Bsta pubib agurrhr gufeia `as hegbethvas b hetbrbsbs ib` fkbetb ea sae pbrobgtfdbetb gadpfthc`bs gae `as ib` prheghpf`. @f ib`bkfgh÷e kbebrf ‐prac`bdfs
ib fkbeghf— qub mfy qub hibethgfr prbghsfdbetb pfrf aorbgbr`bs sa`ugh÷e.
B` prhdbr prac`bdf bs b` ib `f fshdbträf ib `f heoardfgh÷e qub hdp`hgf qub ghbrtfs
heoardfghaebs sb bsgaeife f` prheghpf` (heoardfgh÷e fshdètrhgf), `a qub gfusfräf b` orf-
gfsa ib `f ib`bkfgh÷e. Wh b` prheghpf` hkearf `fs prbobrbeghfs ib sus fkbetbs a f`kuefs
bxhkbeghfs ib bstas, bs pashc`b qub prfgthqub uef sb`bggh÷e gaetrfpraiugbetb be `f guf`
bsgakb fkbetbs masth`bs a ‐heb`bs— qub ea thbebe fs gadpbtbeghfs qub sb rbquhbrbe pfrf
gudp`hr gae `as acjbthvas ib` prheghpf`. Bstb prac`bdf bs gaeaghia gae b` eadcrb ibsb`bggh÷e fivbrsf y rbbrb f` thpa ib praiugta a sbrvhgha crheifia par b` fkbetb.
Atra prac`bdf ib `f rb`fgh÷e prheghpf`/fkbetb bs qub b` prheghpf` euegf bstæ ihs-
pubsta f rbvhsfr shstbdæthgfdbetb b` gaejueta ib `fs fgghaebs ib` fkbetb. @f bxhstbe-
ghf ib fgghaebs bsgaeihifs, bs ibghr, ib fgghaebs qub bsgfpfe f `f fprbmbesh÷e ib`
prheghpf`, grbf b` rhbska ib gadpartfdhbetas apartuehstfs, gaetrfrhas f` hetbrès ib`
prheghpf`, `a qub kbebrf gaehgta ib hetbrbsbs. F bstb prac`bdf sb `a gaeagb gada
rhbska darf` (Frraw, 68;>) y sb ibiugb ib shtufghaebs be qub b` gadpartfdhbeta ib`fkbetb ea bs acsbrvfc`b par b` prheghpf` a, sh `a bs, ea bs vbrhgfc`b.
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Wae vfrhfs `fs bstrftbkhfs ib `fs guf`bs ihspaeb b` prheghpf` pfrf beorbetfr `as
rhbskas ib uef ib`bkfgh÷e. @f `htbrfturf hibethgf guftra thpas ib dbihifs pfrf pra-
tbkbr `f gaekrubeghf ib `fs prbobrbeghfs betrb b` ib`bkftfrha y b` ib`bkfia: 6) bspbgh-
gfghaebs be b` gaetrfta ib ib`bkfgh÷e< 3) `as dbgfehsdas ib sb`bggh÷e ib` ib`bkfia<
`fs ac`hkfghaebs ib heoardb y gaetra`< 9) `as bquh`hcrhas hesthtughaef`bs (Craufri,3>>8< Ga`adbr y Ebkrbtta, 3>>3).
9.9. B` tfdföa ib `as krupas. _az y Wf`hif
Dfegur A`sae (6883) fef`hzf `f pfrthghpfgh÷e a gaetrhcugh÷e ib `as dhbdcras he-
ihvhiuf`bs be ue krupa ib hetbrès be `f pravhsh÷e ib chbebs púc`hgas. ^frf A`sae
b` pragbsas ib oardfgh÷e ib `as krupas bstæ ftrfvbzfia par `f ibehgh÷e ib `as
acjbthvas gaduebs ib `fs fsaghfghaebs va`uetfrhfs, y bsta bxp`hgf `f fusbeghf a prbsbeghf ib hetbrbsbs arkfehzfias par dbiha ib `as gæ`gu`as rfghaef`bs qub `as
heihvhiuas rbf`hzfe fgbrgf ib fsaghfrsb ueas gae atras pfrf sfthsofgbr `as acjbthvas
praphas. Bstas gæ`gu`as sae `as hegbethvas ib `f fggh÷e. @as dhsdas pubibe sbr
sb`bgthvas a ga`bgthvas. @as hegbethvas sb`bgthvas sae fqub``as be `as qub sb pubib
gaetra`fr guæeta sb b if f gfif uea y, be tfeta gfsthkas a rbgadpbesfs, pubibe sbr
dftbrhf`bs, maearägas a gfrkas. ^ar atrf pfrtb, `as hegbethvas ga`bgthvas sae `as
qub sb atarkfe f taias par hkuf` y bstæe dæs vhegu`fias f cbebghas hibethtfrhas,hiba`÷khgas a sa`hifrhas.
@as ias thpas ib hegbethvas pubibe sbr tfeta cubeas gada df`as, pashthvas a
ebkfthvas. Wh chbe `as hegbethvas ga`bgthvas sae dbeas gastasas qub `as sb`bgthvas,
bstas ú`thdas sae oueifdbetf`bs pfrf qub uef arkfehzfgh÷e pbrshstf be b` thbdpa.
±^ar què1 ^arqub taif arkfehzfgh÷e rbquhbrb ib ue krupa ib pbrsaefs qub trfcfjb
ib dfebrf pbrdfebetb, y ea qub pfrthghpb sa`fdbetb ib bvbetas pfrthgu`frbs. ^frf
`akrfr bsta, bs ebgbsfrha paibr fshkefr hegbethvas sb`bgthvas f `as heihvhiuas, gada
par bjbdp`a, pfkfr ue sub`ia.Yaifs fs arkfehzfghaebs ebgbshtfe pfrf sucshsthr tfeta hegbethvas sb`bgthvas gada
ga`bgthvas. Whe bdcfrka, ea taifs `fs arkfehzfghaebs rbquhbrbe `f dhsdf gfethifi
ib gfif uea ib bstas. ^ar bjbdp`a, `fs bdprbsfs prhvfifs rbquhbrbe dæs hegbethvas
sb`bgthvas qub ga`bgthvas. Re hegbethva ga`bgthva pfrf uef bdprbsf pairäf sbr pratb-
kbr b` dbiha fdchbetb be su oardf ib praiuggh÷e. Be gfdcha, `as pfrthias pa`äthgas
prbghsfe dugma dæs hegbethvas ga`bgthvas pfrf rbpfrthr betrb sus shdpfthzfetbs, yf
qub ibpbeibe be krfe dbihif ib` trfcfja va`uetfrha< ea acstfetb, sus äibrbs bspbrferbghchr gfrkas, a sbf, hegbethvas sb`bgthvas.
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Fmarf chbe, `f bxhstbeghf ib ue krupa gae ue hetbrès gadúe ea kfrfethzf `f ar-
kfehzfgh÷e ib` krupa pfrf pbrsbkuhr bsb hetbrès. @f fggh÷e ga`bgthvf ibpbeib ib `fs
ibghshaebs ib as heihvhiuas ib pfrthghpfr a fcstbebrsb. Ifia qub as chbebs púc`hgas
sb aorbgbe par hkuf` f taias `as dhbdcras ib` krupa, gfif heihvhiua pubib trftfr ib
gadpartfrsb gada `a mfräf ue ‐pa`hz÷e— (vbr suprf), bs ibghr, gfif uea ib b``as pub-ib bspbrfr qub tbeiræ fggbsa f` chbe púc`hga she gaapbrfr gae `as ibdæs dhbdcras
ib` krupa eh gaetrhcuhr gae `f pravhsh÷e ib` chbe.
A`sae gaeg`uyb uef sbrhb ib gara`frhas ib sus hibfs: 6) f kbetb thbeib f pfrthghpfr
dæs be fgghaebs ga`bgthvfs ib cfja gastb qub be fgghaebs qub gadpfrtfe gastbs y
rhbskas b`bvfias (y f mfgbr`a dæs be gaeihghaebs ib hcbrtfi qub be ihgtfiurfs)< 3) f
pfrthghpfgh÷e ga`bgthvf pubib sbr f`betfif dbihfetb `f pravhsh÷e gaeihghaef` ib he-
gbethvas sb`bgthvas f as pfrthghpfetbs< 7) b` tfdföa ib` krupa hdpartf: as dhbdcrasib gaduehifibs a krupas ib hetbrès pbquböa, gaegbetrfias y madakèebas thbebe
dæs hegbethvas pfrf gaapbrfr y pfrthghpfr be `f fggh÷e ga`bgthvf qub `as dhbdcras
ib krupas krfeibs, ihspbrsas y mbtbrakèebas. Be b` ædchta púc`hga, `as krupas pb-
quböas thbeibe f tbebr ue dfyar fggbsa f `as rbgursas púc`hgas f bxpbesfs ib `as
krupas krfeibs.
^ar ú`thda, `f ibghsh÷e ib pfrthghpfr be `f fggh÷e ga`bgthvf pubib ibpbeibr tfd-
chèe ib `fs f tbrefthvfs ihspaehc`bs. Wh ue heihvhiua thbeb hetbrès be ue chbe púc`hga
pbra b` gasta ib uehrsb f` krupa sae b`bvfias pubib aptfr par cusgfr ue pravbbiarf`tbrefthva a ibsp`fzfrsb f ue bsgbefrha f`tbrefthva. Bstf fggh÷e oub ibeadhefif
‐vaz— par F`cbrt Mhrsgmdfe (68;;) pfrf sukbrhr `f bxhstbeghf ib ghbrtf ibdfeif he-
sfthsobgmf. Bstf pubib sbr susthtuhif par uef ‐sf`hif— tfeta sh bsta hdp`hgf dfrgmfrsb
f ue krupa ihobrbetb, gfdchfr ib f`hfgh÷e, vatfr f atra pfrthia, duifrsb a bdhkrfr.
9.2. Ibpbeibeghf ib `f trfybgtarhf (^ftm Ibpbeibegb)
@f eagh÷e ib ibpbeibeghf ib f trfybgtarhf sb ibsfrra``a be `f iègfif ib `as 8> pfrfsucrfyfr b` pbsa ib `fs b`bgghaebs bobgtufifs be b` pfsfia (y ib sus hesthtughaebs) be
`fs ibghshaebs prbsbetbs. Bs uef eagh÷e gbetrf` ib `as fcarifjbs ebahesthtughaef`bs
mhst÷rhgas qub cusgfe ifr gubetf ib f gaetheuhifi ib fs trfybgtarhfs ib fs pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs.
Iauk`fss Eartm (6889) dastr÷ `f hdpartfeghf ib bstas feæ`hshs pfrf gadprbeibr
`as pragbsas ib surkhdhbeta y ib gfdcha ib `fs hesthtughaebs. ^frf bstb futar, b` ob-
e÷dbea ib `f ibpbeibeghf ib `f trfybgtarhf sb fpayf be b` gadpartfdhbeta ib `asheihvhiuas f` hetbrhar ib `fs hesthtughaebs, bxp`hgfeia par què `fs hesthtughaebs sae
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
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bstfc`bs y rbshstbetbs f` gfdcha. Ib hkuf` dfebrf, atras futarbs gada Sacbrt Kaaihe
(688?) dastrfrae qub `fs ibghshaebs hehghf`bs be dftbrhf ib ihsböa hesthtughaef` thb-
ebe hdp`hgfeghfs ib `frka p`fza be dftbrhf ib ibsbdpböa bgae÷dhga y pa`äthga.
9.?. Hesthtughaebs pa`äthgfs y ibghsh÷e^frf `as futarbs qub paebe èeofshs be b` feæ`hshs ib `fs hesthtughaebs pa`äthgfs, `as
pragbsas ib oardu`fgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ibpbeibe ib `f gfpfghifi ib `as
fgtarbs pfrf f`gfezfr y mfgbr gudp`hr fgubrias, a sbf, ib gaapbrfr. ±Cfja què gaeih-
ghaebs bs pashc`b gaapbrfr1 Bxhstbe dugmas ofgtarbs qub pubibe ofgh`htfr `as pragb-
sas ib oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs, f`kueas ib gfrægtbr mhst÷rhga, gu`turf`, saghf` a bga-
e÷dhga. Betrb `fs prheghpf`bs ihdbeshaebs ib feæ`hshs qub bstas bstuihas prharhzfe,
paibdas hibethgfr: (h) `f bstrugturf ib cbebghas bxhstbetb ibetra ib ue pbräaia
ibtbrdhefia: sh bxhstbe krfeibs cbebghas hedbihftas fsaghfias gae ibsvhfrsb ib
`as fgubrias gaapbrfthvas, `f gaapbrfgh÷e sbræ ihoägh` ib sastbebr. ^ar bjbdp`a, be
b` gaetbxta ib` shstbdf sgf` obibrf` frkbethea, b` cbebgha heihvhiuf` qub uef pra-
vheghf pubib actbebr f` ibsvhfrsb ib ue fgubria gaapbrfthva bs f`ta (pubib actbebr,
shkuhbeia b` bjbdp`a, rbsgftbs efeghbras fihghaef`bs ib` Kachbrea Efghaef` qub
sae pfkfias gae rbgursas gaduebs ib taif `f efgh÷e)< (hh) b` eúdbra ib jukfiarbs:
gufeta dæs krfeib sbf b` eúdbra ib jukfiarbs, dæs ihoägh` sbræ gaapbrfr (Ysbcb``hs,3>>3< Gax y DgGucches, 3>>6)< (hhh) `as väegu`as tbdparf`bs betrb fgtarbs pa`äthgas
g`fvbs: b` pftr÷e hetbrtbdparf` ib hetbrfggh÷e betrb fgtarbs bspbgägas be pashghaebs
pa`äthgfs oardf`bs (`bkhs`fiarbs, kacbrefiarbs, btg.) bs hdpartfetb pfrf b` `akra ib
rbsu`tfias gaapbrfthvas. Ea bs `a dhsda tbebr, par bjbdp`a, uef `bkhs`fturf be `f
guf` `as dhsdas heihvhiuas hetbrfgtúfe rbpbthifdbetb f `a `frka ib pbrhaias bxtbe-
ihias, qub tbebr uef `bkhs`fturf be qub `as `bkhs`fiarbs heihvhiuf`bs sae rbbdp`f-
zfias gae orbgubeghf< (hv) `f hesthtughaef`hzfgh÷e ib `as bsgbefrhas pfrf `f oardu-
`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: `as bsgbefrhas hesthtughaef`hzfias pubibe ofvarbgbr `fgaapbrfgh÷e f pfrthr ib ofgh`htfr `as hetbrgfdchas rbqubrhias pfrf hdp`bdbetfr uef
pa`äthgf púc`hgf< (v) `f ihspaehch`hifi ib dbgfehsdas ib beoargbdbet : f gaapbrfgh÷e
bs dæs oægh` ib `akrf sh bxhstb ue cube beoargbdbet bjbrghia par tbrgbras fgtarbs. @f
prbsbeghf ib ue jubz hdpfrghf`, supaebe, pbrdhtb kbebrfr dbjarbs dbgfehsdas ib
gaapbrfgh÷e betrb `as fgtarbs.
Wacrb bstb pfrthgu`fr va`vbrbdas be b` Gfpätu`a _HH, f` mfc`fr ib `as pragbsas
pa`äthgas ib fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs frkbethefs.
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2. BE SBWRDBE
F `a `frka ib bstb gfpätu`a vhdas `f rb`fgh÷e bxhstbetb betrb rfghaef`hifi y tadf ib
ibghsh÷e be `fs prheghpf`bs bsgub`fs ib feæ`hshs ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: `f tbaräf ib
`f b`bggh÷e rfghaef`, b` hegrbdbetf`hsda y b` feæ`hshs hesthtughaef`. ^astbrhardbetbeas fcagfdas f f ihf`ègthgf betrb ibghsh÷e y paibr, beoagæeiaeas be f hibf ib gfd-
pa a dftrhz ib jubka gada `f dbtæoarf fef`äthgf qub eas pbrdhtb rbobrbeghfs fgtarbs,
rbk`fs y pragbsas. ^ar ú`thda, eas beoagfdas be b` feæ`hshs ib `as prheghpf`bs dbgf-
ehsdas pfrf betbeibr `as pragbsas ib gaapbrfgh÷e betrb fgtarbs f pfrthr ib rbvhsfr
`as daib`as bspfghf`bs, `f Ybaräf ib jubkas, b` beoaqub prheghpf`/fkbetb, b` feæ`hshs
ib `as krupas, `f ibpbeibeghf ib `f trfybgtarhf y b` feæ`hshs hesthtughaef`.
Sbobrbeghfs
Fcf` Dbihef, Jufe Dfeub` y Obrefeia Jfhdb, ^aibr, fgtarbs b hesthtughaebs. Refhetraiuggh÷e f `f Ghbeghf ^a`äthgf, Wbrhb Iagudbetas ib Gfpfghtfgh÷e E¾ 6(Hesthtuta Efghaef` ib Fidhehstrfgh÷e ^úc`hgf, HEF^), Cubeas Fhrbs, Wucsb-grbtfräf ib Kbst h÷e ^úc`hgf/JKD, 3>>?.
Fguöf, Gfr`as, ‐@f eubvf dftr hz pa`äthgf frkbethef— Be Gfr`as Fguöf (Gadp.) @feubvf dftrhz pa`äthgf frkbethef, Cubeas Fhrbs, Eubvf _hsh÷e, 6882.
F``hsae, Krfmfd, @f bsbeghf ib `f ibghsh÷e: feæ`hshs bxp`hgfthva ib `f grhshs ib `asdhsh`bs gucfeas, Cubeas Fhrbs, Krupa Bihtar @ftheafdbrhgfea, 68==.
F``hsae, Krfmfd, ‐Daib`as gaegbptuf`bs y `f grhshs ib `as dhsh`bs gucfeas—, @uhsO. Fkuh`fr _h``feubvf (Bis.) @f Mbgmurf ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, Dèxhga IO:Dhkub` Æekb` ^arrúf Bihtarbs, 688?.
Frraw, Lbeebtm, Bssfys he tmb Ymbary ao Shsl-Cbfrhek, Fdstbrifd, Eartm-Ma-``fei ^uc`hgfthae Gadpfey, 68;>.
Frraw, Lbeebtm J., ‐_f`arbs heihvhiuf`bs y vf`arbs saghf`bs—, be Jasbp Ga`adbr(Gadp.) @bgturfs ib tbaräf pashthvf, Dfirhi Hesthtuta ib Bstuihas Ohsgf`bs/DBM, 6886.
Frraw, Lbeebtm J., B`bggh÷e saghf` y vf`arbs heihvhiuf`bs, Dfirhi, ^`febtf, 6889.Fxb`rai, Sacbrt, @f gadp`bjhifi ib `f gaapbrfgh÷e. Daib`as ib gaapbrfgh÷e y
ga`fcarfgh÷e cfsfias be fkbetbs, Dèxhga, IO: Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf,3>>7.
C`fgl, Iuegfe, Ymbarhbs ao Gaddhttbbs fei B`bgthaes, Gfdcrhikb, GfdcrhikbRehvbrshty ^rbss, 689=.
Cfudkfrtdbr, Orfel y Cryfe Jaebs, Fkbeifs fei Hestfch`hty he Fdbrhgfe ^a`h-thgs, Gmhgfka, Gmhgfka Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 6887.
Craufri, Wy`vfhe, ‐^r heghpf`/fkbetb— Ihgghaefrha ib ^a`äthgfs ^úc`hgfs, Cakatæ,
Rehvbrshifi Bxtbrefia ib Ga`adchf, 3>>8.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
697
Cugmfefe, J. D. X Kariae Yu``agl, B` gæ`gu`a ib` gaesbesa: oueifdbetas `÷khgasib `f ibdagrfghf gaest htughaef`, Dfirhi, ^`febtf-Fkastheh, 68=7.
Gfvfrazzh, Dfrgb`a, Futarhtfrhsda y ibdagrfghf (6822-68=7), Cubeas Fhrbs,Gbetra Bihtar ib Fdèrhgf @fthef, 68=;.
Gambe, Jbfe y Feirbw Frfta, Ghvh` saghbty fei pa`hthgf` tmbary, Gfdcrhikb, DHY^rbss, 6883.
Ga`adbr, Jasbp, ‐Sbtarea f `fs hesthtughaebs— G`fvbs, 62: 26-2?, 6886.
Ga`adbr, Jasbp, Ghbeghf ib `f ^a`äthgf, Dfirhi, Frhb` Bihtarbs, 3>>8.
Ga`adbr, Jasbp y Kfcrhb` Ebkrbtta, ‐Kacbrefezf gae paibrbs ihvhihias be Fdè-rhgf @fthef—. ^a`äthgf y kachbrea, 6> (6): 67-?6, 3>>7.
Gax, Kfry y Dfttmbw DgGucches, ‐Hesthtuthaef` Ibtbrdhefts ao Bgaeadhg ^a-`hgy—, be Wtbpmbe Mfkkfri y Dfttmbw DgGucches (Bis.) ^rbshibets, ^fr`hf-dbets fei ^a`hgy: ^a`hthgf` Bgaeady ao Hesthtuthaes fei Ibghshaes, Gfdcrhi-kb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>6.
Ifm`, Sacbrt, [ma kavbres1 Ibdagrfgy fei ^awbr he fe Fdbrhgfe Ghty, EbwMbfvbe: Xf`b Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 68??.
Ifm`, Sacbrt y Gmfr`bs @heic`ad, ^a`hthgs, Bgaeadhgs fei [b`ofrb. ^`feehekfei ^a`hthga-bgaeadhg Wystbd heta Cfshg Waghf` ^ragbssbs, Ebw Xarl, MfrpbrYargmbcaals, 68;?.
Iawihek, Lbhtm, ‐Bquhty fei vathek: wmy ibdagrfgy ebbis ihgtftars—. @‘Feebèbsagha`akhqub, 9; (3): 78-27. 688;.
Iawes, Fetmaey, Ybaräf Bgae÷dhgf ib `f Ibdagrfghf, Dfirhi, Fkuh`fr, 68;2.
Iue`bfvy, ^ftrhgl, ‐^raobsshaes fei pa`hgy gmfekb: eatbs tawfris f daib` aohiba`akhgf` garparfthsd—. ^uc`hg Fidhehstrfthae Cu``bthe, 7?: 7-6?, 68=6.
Bfstae, Ifvhi, Bsqubdfs pfrf b` feæ`hshs pa`äthga, Cubeas Fhrbs, Fdarrartu,68?8.
Bib`dfe, Durrfy, Ymb Wydca`hg Rsb ao ^a`hthgs, Rrcfef, Rehvbrshty ao H``heahs^rbss, 68=2.
B`stbr, Jae, B` gbdbeta ib `f saghbifi. ^frfiajfs ib` aribe saghf`, Cfrgb`aefKbihsf Bihtarhf`, 688;.
Bvfes, ^btbr, Ihbtbr Subsgmbdbybr y Ymbif Wlaapa`, Crhekhek tmb Wtftb Cfgl He.Gfdcrhikb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 68=2.
Kfrrbtae, Dfeub` Fet÷eha, ‐@f trfesoardfgh÷e ib `f fggh÷e ga`bgthvf be Fdèrh-gf @fthef—, Sbvhstf ib `f GB^F@, ;?: ;-39, 3>>3.
Khiibes, Fetmaey, @f gaesthtugh÷e ib `f saghbifi. Cfsbs pfrf `f tbaräf ib `f bs-trugturfgh÷e, Cubeas Fhrbs, Fdarrar tu, 6882.
Kaaihe, Sacbrt B., ‐Hesthtuthae fei tmbhr ibshke—, be Sacbrt B. Kaaihe (Bis.)Ymb tmbary ao Hesthtuthaef` Ibshke, Gfdcrhikb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss,688?.
Mhehgm, Db`vhe y Dhgmfb` Duekbr, Ybaräf fef`äthgf ib `f pa`äthgf, Kbihsf , Bspf-öf, 3>>7.
Mhrsgmdfe, F`cbrt, Wf`hif, vaz y `bf`tfi. Sbspubstfs f` ibtbrhara ib bdprbsfs,arkfehzfghaebs y bstfias, Dèxhga, IO: Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf, 68;;.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
699
Mucbr, Jame y Gmfr`bs Wmhpfe, ‐Ymb Gast ao Gaetra`: @bkhs`ftar, Fkbeghbs feiYrfesfgthae Gast—, @bkhs`fthvb Wtuihbs Vufrtbr`y. 32 (6): 32-23, 3>>>.
Muethektae, Wfdub`, B` aribe pa`äthga be `fs saghbifibs be gfdcha, Cubeas Fh-rbs, ^fhi÷s, 6886.
H``hgm, Hvfe.,Dbihgf` Ebdbshs: tmb Bxpraphfthae ao Mbf`tm, Ebw Xarl, CftfdCaals, 68;;.
Jbssap, Cac, Wtftb Ymbary. ^utthek Gfphtf`hst Wtftbs he tmbhr ^`fgb, @aeiae, ^a`hty^rbss, 688>.
Jarifef, Jfghet ‐B` feæ`hshs ib `as pa`hgy ebtwarls: ±uef eubvf pbrspbgthvf sacrb`f rb`fgh÷e betrb pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs y Bstfia—, be Gfr`as M. Fguöf (Gadp.)@bgturfs sacrb b` Bstfia y `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: Sbtadfeia b` ibcftb ib fybr
pfrf oar tf`bgbr b` fgtuf`` Cubeas Fhrbs` ^raybgta ib Daibrehzfgh÷e ib` Bstf-ia/Jbofturf ib Kfchebtb ib dhehstras ib `f Efgh÷e, 3>>;.
Lehkmt, Jfgl, Hesthtuthaes fei saghf` gaeo `hgt, Gfdcrhikb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty
^rbss, 6883.@fswb``, Mfra`i, ^a`hthgs: [ma Kbts [mft, [mbe fei Maw, Ebw Xarl, DgKrfw
Mh`` , 682>.
@fswb``, Mfra`i, F ^rbvhbw ao ^a`hgy Wghbegbs, Ebw Xarl, B`sbvhbr, 68;6.
@heic`ad, Gmfr`bs, ‐Ymb Wghbegb ao Duii`hek Ymraukm—, ^uc`hg FidhehstrfthaeSbvhbw, 78 (3): ;8-==, 6828.
Dfrgm, Jfdbs K., A`sbe, Jamfe, ‐B` eubva hest htughaef`hsda: ofgtarbs arkfehzfth-vas ib `f vhif pa`äthgf—, Sbvhstf Zaef Fchbrtf, ?7/?9: 6-99, 6887.
DgGucches, Dfttmbw, Sakbr Ea`` y Cfrry [bhekfst, ‐Fidhehst rfthvb ragbiurbsfs Hest rudbets ao ^a`hthgf` Gaetra`—, Jauref` ao @fw, Bgaeadhgs fei Arkfeh-zfthae, 7 (3): 397-3;;, 68=;.
Dab, Ybrry, ‐Ebw Bgaeadhgs ai Arkfehzfthae—, Fdbrhgfe Jauref` ao ^a`hthgf`Wghbegb, 3=: ;78-;;;, 68=9.
@heic`ad, Gmfr`bs, ^a`hthgs fei Dfrlbts, Ebw Xarl, Cfshg caals, 68;;.
Dfee, Dhgmfb`, @fs oubetbs ib` paibr saghf`. _a`udbe HH, Dfirhi, F`hfezf Bih-tarhf`, 688;.
Dbrrh``, Wfdub` HHH, ‐F gadpfrhsae ao boo hghbegy ao du`thgfeihiftb b`bgtarf` sys-tbds—, Fdbrhgfe Jauref` ao ^a`hthgf` Wghbegb, 3= (6): 37-9=, 68=9.
Dh``br, Ehgma`fs S., ‐^`urf`hsd fei saghf` gmahgb—, Ymb Fdbrhgfe ^a`hthgf` Sb-vhbw, ;; (7): ;79-;9;, 68=7.
Dh``hcfei, Sf`pm, B` Bstfia be `f saghbifi gfphtf`hstf, Dèxhga IO: Whk`a ]]HBihtarbs, 68;=.
Ehbdh, Shgmfri K. y [h``hfd M. Shlbr, ‐@f b`bggh÷e be `as shstbdfs ib vatfgh÷e—be Jasbp Ga`adbr (Gadp.) @bgturfs ib tbaräf pashthvf, Dfirhi, Hesthtuta ibBstuihas Ohsgf`bs/DBM, 6886.
Eartm, Iauk`fs G., Bstrugturf y gfdcha be `f mhstarhf bgae÷dhgf, Dfirhi, F`hfe-zf Bihtarhf`, 6889.
Eartm, Iauk`fss G., Hesthtughaebs, gfdcha hesthtughaef` y ibsbdpböa bgae÷dhga,Dèxhga, Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf, 6882.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
692
Eartm, Iauk`fss G. y Sacbr t ^fu` Ymadfs, B` efghdhbeta ib` dueia agghibetf`.Ref eubvf mhstarhf bgae÷dhgf (8>>-6;>>), Dfirhi, Whk`a ]]H, 68=;.
Eurdh, Mfeeu, ‐_athek ^ragbiurbs: f suddfry fef`yshs—. Cr hthsm Jauref` ao ^a-`hthgf` Wghbegb, 67 (3): 6=6-3>=, 68=7.
A‘Gaeear, Jfdbs, @f gr hshs o hsgf` ib` Bstfia, Dfirhi, Bihghaebs ^beäesu`f, 68=6.
A`sae, Dfegur, @f `÷khgf ib `f fggh÷e ga`bgthvf. Chbebs púc`hgas y tbaräf ib kr u- pas, Dèxhga, @hdusf / Earhbkf Bihtarbs, 6883.
Aoob, G`fus, Gaetrfihgghaebs ib` Bstfia ib Chbebstfr, Dfirhi, F`hfezf Bihtarhf`,688>.
A`sae, Dfegur, Fukb y ibgfibeghf ib `fs efghaebs: grbghdhbeta bgae÷dhga, bs-tfko `fgh÷e y rhkhibz saghf`, Dfirhi, Fr hb` Bihghaebs, 68=?.
A`sae, Dfegur, @f `÷khgf ib `f fggh÷e ga`bgthvf. Chbebs púc`hgas y `f Ybaräf ibKrupas, Dèxhga, @hdusf / Earhbkf bihtarbs, 6883.
^frsaes, [fyeb, ^a`äthgfs ^úc`hgfs. Ref hetraiuggh÷e f `f tbar äf y f `f prægthgfib` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, Cubeas Fhrbs, Dhöa y Iævh`f, 3>>;.
^btbrs, Kuy C., ‐^a`hgy Ebtwarls: Dytm, Dbtfpmar fei Sbf`hty—, be Ifvhi Dfrgm(Bis.) Gadpfrhek ^a`hgy Ebtwarls. Dfhibembfi, RL, Apbe Rehvbrshty ^rbss,688=.
^au`fetzfs, Ehg`fs, ^aibr pa`äthga y g`fsbs saghf`bs be b` bstfia gfphtf`hstf , Dè-xhga IO: Whk`a ]]H, 68;?.
^utefd, Sacbrt, Dflhek Ibdagrfgy [arl: Ghvhg trfihthaes he Daibre Htf`y,^rhegbtae, ^rhegbtae Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 6887.
Vubsfif, Dhkub`, ‐Ibcbräfe hetbrbsfrsb `as sagh÷`akas par b` dfrxhsda fef`äth-ga—. ^fpbrs, 2> (Rehvbrshifi Fut÷eadf ib Cfrgb`aef): 622-6?7, 688?.
Shlbr, [h``hfe M., ‐Hdp`hgfghaebs ib` ibsbquh`hcrha ib `f rbk`f ib `f dfyaräf pfrfb` bstuiha ib `fs hesthtughaebs—, be Jasbp Ga`adbr (Gadp.) @bgtu rfs ib tbaräf
pashthvf, Dfirhi, Hest htuta ib Bstuihas Ohsgf`bs/DBM, 6886.
Wfcfthbr, ^fu` y Mfel G. Jhelhes-Wdhtm, ‐Ymb fivagfgy Gaf`hthaes Orfdbwarls:Fe Fssbssdbet—, be ^fu` Wfcfthbr (Bi.) Ymbarhbs ao ^a`hgy ^ragbss, Cau`ibr,Ga`: [bstvhbw ^rbss, 6888.
Wgmbi`br, Feirbfs, Eba-hesthtughaef`hsda, Dèxhga IO, (Dhdba), 688=.
Wmbps`b, Lbeebtm, ‐Wtuiyhek hesthtuthaes. Wadb `bssaes orad tmb rfthaef` gmahgbfpprafgm—, Jauref` ao Ymbarbthgf` ^a`hthgs, H (3): 676-69;, 68=8.
Wgmdhttbr, ^mh``hpb, ‐Wth`` tmb gbetury ao garparfthsd1— Sbvhbw ao ^a`hthgs, 7?:=2-676, 68;9.
Whdae, Mbrcbrt, Daib` ao Dfe: Waghf` fei Sfthaef`, Ebw Xarl, Jame [h`by,682;.
Wlaapa`, Ymbif, ^ratbgthek Wa`ihbrs fei Datmbrs: Ymb ^a`hthgf` Arhkhes ao Waghf`^a`hgy he tmb Rehtbi Wtftbs, Gfdcrhkib, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 6883.
Yffkbpbrf, Sbhe y Cbrefri Kraodfe, ‐Sbtmhelhek Iuvbrkbr‘s `fw: ^rbihgthek tmbboobgthvb eudcbr ao pfrthbs he p`urf`hty fei ^S systbds—. Burapbfe Jauref` ao^a`hthgf` Sbsbfrgm, 67 (9): 796-723, 68=2.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
69?
Ysbcb`hs, Kbarkb, _bta ^`fybrs. Mfw ^a`hthgf` Hesthtuthaes [arls, Gfdcrhikb:Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>3.
Yu``agl, Kariae, ‐Ymb kbebrf` h rrb`bvfegb ao tmb hdpasshch`hty tmbarbd—. Vufr-tbr`y Jauref` ao Bgaeadhgs, =6 (3): 32?-3;>, 68?;.
[h`ifvsly, Ffrae, Ymb Frt fei Grfot ao ^a`hgy Fef`yshs, @aeiae, Dfgdh``fe,68=>.
[h``hfdsae, A`hvbr @fs hesthtughaebs bgae÷dhgfs ib` gfphtf`hsda, Dèxhga, Oaeiaib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf, 68=2.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
69=
prhdbrf dhtfi ib as =>. Be bsas föas fpfrbghbrae eudbrasas trfcfjas qub, fsudhbeia
`f prapubstf p`fetbfif par @fsswb``, rboardu`fcfe `f gfethifi a `f oardf ib eadhefr
f gfif uef ib `fs btfpfs ib` pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf3. Fshdhsda, bstas trfcfjas bsthdu-
`frae `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib uef kbebrfgh÷e ib hdpartfetbs hevbsthkfghaebs qub gbetrfcfe
su ftbegh÷e be f`kuef ib `fs btfpfs ib` pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf7 (ib@bae, 688;).F dbihfias ib as => Eflfdurf (68=;) a ibeäf gada ‐`f dæs heuybetb ib fs
gaegbpghaebs sacrb b` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs—. Bstf heubeghf ea sa`a sb grhstf`h-
zfcf be `f oardf qub sb arkfehzfcfe y ibeäfe `fs fkbeifs ib hevbsthkfgh÷e ib `as
fgfièdhgas (y qub ihbrae `uz f trfcfjas duy sasthgfias iurfetb `fs iègfifs ib `as
;> y ?>) shea qub sb p`fsdfcf tfdchèe be `f iagbeghf (y be `as prakrfdfs ib besb-
öfezf sacrb puc`hg pa`hgy be `fs dfbsträfs y iagtarfias bspbghf`hzfias be b` ærbf).
^bra `a qub bs fúe dæs hdpartfetb, bstf vhsh÷e tfdchèe mf shia heuybetb sacrb `asfgtarbs ib `fs pa`äthgfs ( pa`hgy fgtars), quhbebs tbeihbrae f gaegbchr b` pragbsa ib `f
pa`äthgf cfja bstf hibf ib sbgubeghf`hifi qub kbebrfcf b` daib`a9.
Whe bdcfrka, ibsib dbihfias ib `as => y iurfetb `f iègfif ib` 8> b` daib`a
sbgubeghf` mf shia acjbta ib eudbrasfs gräthgfs. Gada sasthbebe Bstbvbz y Bspbr
(3>>8: ;7): ‐Fef`hstfs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ib` tfdföa ib ^fu` Wfcfthbr, ^btbr Jame
y Sacbrt Eflfdurf `a grhthgfrae iurfdbetb y mfstf sb rbrhbrae è` gada b` ”daib`a
ib dfeuf`‘ (Eflfdurf 68=;)—. Be krfe dbihif bstfs bstuvhbrae f`hdbetfifs par `f
ebgbshifi hdpbrhasf y b` ibsba ib ihspaebr ib tbaräfs ib f`gfegb dbiha (Dbrtae,682=) qub pbrdhtfe ea sa`a ibrhvfr f`kuefs mhp÷tbshs gfusf`bs qub pubife sbr sadb-
thifs f vbrhgfgh÷e bdpärhgf shea fibdæs rbf`hzfr f`kuefs prbihgghaebs.
3. @FW GSÄYHGFW F@ DAIB@A WBGRBEGHF@ IB @FW ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
Mfe shia dugmfs y vfrhfifs `fs acsbrvfghaebs y gräthgfs qub sb `b mfe oardu`fia f`
daib`a ib `fs btfpfs ib` pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf hehghf`dbetb prapubsta par
3 Betrb bstas trfcfjas sb ibstfgfe `as fpartbs ib Jaebs (68;>), Sasb (68;7), Crbwbr (68;9), Feibrsae(68;2), Dfy y [h`ifvsly (68;=), Jbelhes (68;=), Crbwbr y ib@bae (68=7), Makwaai y Kuee (68=9),betrb atras.
7 ^frf ue feæ`hshs dæs ibtf``fia ib` daib`a sbgubeghf` y ib `as fpartbs qub sb rbf`hzfrae be b` dfrgaib gfif uef ib `fs btfpfs ib` pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf sb sukhbrb gaesu`tfr b` Gfpätu`a H_ ib` prbsbetb `hcra.
9 F`kuefs ib `fs rfzaebs qub bxp`hgfe `f prbbdhebeghf ib bstb daib`a sae chbe ibehifs y bxp`hgh-tfifs par Eflfdurf (68=;).
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
698
Mfra`i @fsswb``. Ref prhdbrf acsbrvfgh÷e `f oardu`f ib@bae (68==), quhbe oubrf
uea ib `as ibobesarbs ib` daib`a, f` gadpfrfr `fs oartf`bzfs y ibch`hifibs ib sbk-
dbetfr be btfpfs b` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs. Wbkúe b` futar, dugmas ib `as trfcfjas
rbf`hzfias berhqubghbrae f `f ihsghp`hef ib `fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs, parqub db pbr-
dhthbrae f pfrthr ib bxmfusthvas bstuihas ib gfsa rbgaeagbr `f gadp`bjhifi qub bxhs-tb ibtræs ib taif pa`äthgf púc`hgf, f`bjfeia `fs hevbsthkfghaebs ib` bstuiha bxg`ushva
ib fs hesthtughaebs (`a qub par ghbrta ea supaeb hkearfr`fs) y pradavhbeia ‗shkuhbe-
ia b` gaesbja ib @fsswb``‗ fpraxhdfghaebs du`thihsghp`hefrhfs. Whe bdcfrka, bs-
tas feæ`hshs fia`bgäfe ib uef hdpartfetb ibch`hifi, pubs mfgäfe qub `as fef`hstfs sb
gbetrfrfe be uef úehgf btfpf, ebkfeia ‗a pbrihbeia ib vhstf‗ b` pragbsa gadp`bta.
Gada gaesbgubeghf ib b``a sb gaegbcäf f` pragbsa gada ‐bphs÷ihga y ibsfrthgu`fia
be `ukfr ib uea dæs gaetheua y prakrbshva— (ib@bae, 688;: =).Whe bdcfrka, `fs gräthgfs dæs heghshvfs pravhehbrae ib guftra futarbs: Sacbrt
Eflfdurf (68=;), ^fu` Wfcfthbr (68==, 6886) ‗quhbe be f`kueas trfcfjas mf bsgrhta
be ga`fcarfgh÷e gae Jbelhes-Wdhtm (Wfcfthbr y Jbelhes-Wdhtm, 6887), Ibcarfm Wtaeb
(68=8) y btbr Jame (688=). Bstas futarbs sasthbebe qub b` daib`a sbgubeghf` mf kbeb-
rfia uef vhsh÷e frthghf` sacrb b` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs, qub ea pbrdhtb ifr gubetf
ib `f gadp`bjhifi qub gfrfgtbrhzf f` ‐pragbsa rbf`—. Be bobgta, `f sbkdbetfgh÷e ib`
pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs be btfpfs ‐bxfkbrf `f efturf`bzf rfghaef` ib `f oardu`fgh÷e
ib pa`äthgfs y prbsbetf uef hdfkbe of`sf ib ue pragbsa qub ea bs uef bspbghb ib cfe-if trfespartfiarf be `f guf` `f fkbeif sb ibeb be ue bxtrbda y `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e
y `f bvf`ufgh÷e thbebe `ukfr be b` bxtrbda apubsta— (^frsaes, 3>>=: 667).
Wfcfthbr (6886) p`fetbf f`kuefs gräthgfs ibvfstfiarfs f` daib`a ib `f mburästhgf
ib `fs btfpfs:
h) Be prhdbr `ukfr, frdf qub ea bs rbf`dbetb ue daib`a gfusf` ifia qub
ea hibethgf ue gaejueta ib ofgtarbs gfusf`bs qub kachbreb b` pragbsa ib
`fs pa`äthgfs tfeta ibetra gada betrb `fs btfpfs. Heg`usa, `a qub bs fúe dæskrfvb, `as trfcfjas dæs hdpartfetbs ibsfrra``fias sacrb f`kuef ib `fs btf-
pfs sb rbf`hzfcfe she mfgbr rbobrbeghf f`kuef f fs hevbsthkfghaebs sacrb `fs
atrfs btfpfs, `a qub gaeiugäf f qub ea bxhsthbrf ue gaejueta gambrbetb ib
mhp÷tbshs sacrb b` pragbsa ‐gadp`bta— ib `f pa`äthgf. Fue dæs, ‐b` daib`a
par btfpfs ea praparghaef uef cfsb g`frf pfrf pracfr `fs mhp÷tbshs bdpärh-
gfs— (Wfcfthbr, 6887: 62).
hh) Be sbkueia, `ukfr, `f sbgubeghf ib `fs btfpfs qub prapaeb b` daib`a pf-
ibgb ib uef hdprbghsh÷e ibsgrhpthvf. B``a sb praiugb f` qubrbr fgbetufr `as
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`ädhtbs a oraetbrfs betrb `fs btfpfs (y, shkuhbeia f @fsswb``, hibethgfr `fs
oueghaebs y fgtarbs qub garrbspaeibe f gfif btfpf), pbrihbeia ib vhstf `as
sa`fpfdhbetas b hetbribpbeibeghf qub bxhstb betrb `fs dhsdfs.
hhh) Be tbrgbr `ukfr, `f mburästhgf ib `fs btfpfs sb gfrfgtbrhzf par fsudhr ue
beoaqub bstrhgtfdbetb `bkf`hstf, tap-iawe, qub gbetrf `f ftbegh÷e be `ffpracfgh÷e b hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib ‐krfeibs ibghshaebs— (chk ibghshaes).
hv) Be gufrta `ukfr, b` daib`a ib `fs btfpfs sucrfyf hefibgufifdbetb b` ghg`a
ib f pa`äthgf gada f uehifi tbdparf` ib feæ`hshs, pubsta qub f` shdp`hgfr
b` pragbsa sb ehbkf a hkearf `f bxhstbeghf ib ghg`as qub apbrfe shdu`tæebf-
dbetb be ihobrbetbs ehvb`bs ib kachbrea.
v) ^ar ú`thda, `f mburästhgf ib `fs btfpfs ea f`gfezf f praparghaefr ue vbmä-
gu`a fibgufia pfrf hetbkrfr b` feæ`hshs ib `fs pa`äthgfs gae b` fprbeihzfjbarhbetfia par `fs pa`äthgfs f trfvès ib` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs.
@fs gräthgfs p`fetbfifs par Wfcfthbr (6886) ihbrae ukfr f ue praoueia ibcftb sacrb
`as ihsthetas prac`bdfs a of`beghfs qub prbsbetf b` daib`a ib fs btfpfs ib` pragbsa ib
`fs pa`äthgfs. Ea bs b` prap÷shta fquä ibsfrra``fr taias bstas ibcftbs, pbra sä f` dbeas
h`udhefr fqub``as fspbgtas dæs gaetravbrshf`bs. Bstas pubibe shetbthzfrsb be tarea
f `as shkuhbetbs hetbrrakfetbs: 6) ±bs b` daib`a sbgubeghf` ue dfrga gaegbptuf`, uef
tbaräf, a sb trftf ib ue daib`a1< 3) ±què prac`bdfs supaeb fgbptfr `as supubstas ib
`hebf`hifi y sbgubeghf`hifi qub bstæe ibtræs ib `f mburästhgf ib `fs btfpfs1< y 7) ±guæ`bs b` `ukfr qub `f mburästhgf ib `fs btfpfs `b atarkf f `fs hibfs y b` gaeaghdhbeta1
3.6. ±Dfrga gaegbptuf`, tbaräf a daib`a1
Re bjb hdpartfetb qub mf bstrugturfia b` ibcftb be tarea f` daib`a sbgubeghf` sb
mf gbetrfia be `f prbkuetf ib sh sb trftf ib ue dfrga gaegbptuf`, tbaräf a daib`a.
Whkuhbeia f Astrad (6888) ue dfrga gaegbptuf` hibethgf ue gaejueta ib vfrhfc`bs
y rb`fghaebs qub ibcbe sbr bxfdhefifs. ^bra bstas dfrgas gaegbptuf`bs ea bspbgh-gfe `f ihrbggh÷e ib bsf rb`fgh÷e betrb vfrhfc`bs, ea pbrdhtfe hibethgfr `fs mhp÷tbshs
dæs oueifdbetf`bs. Be gfdcha, uef tbaräf bstfc`bgb ue gaejueta ib rb`fghaebs ga-
mbrbetbs, dæs ibesfs y `÷khgfs, be iaeib sb bspbghgfe g÷da bstæe rb`fghaefifs `fs
vfrhfc`bs y ib `f guf` sb pubibe ibrhvfr ue gaejueta ib mhp÷tbshs qub sb uth`hzfe pfrf
bxp`hgfr `as obe÷dbeas bstuihfias. ^ar ú`thda, b` daib`a bs uef rbprbsbetfgh÷e ib
uef shtufgh÷e bspbgägf qub ibcb heg`uhr supubstas bspbgägas sacrb `as vf`arbs ib
`fs vfrhfc`bs gräthgfs, pbra qub pasbb ue f`gfegb dbear qub `as dfrgas gaegbptuf`bsy `fs tbaräfs.
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Be tarea f bstb ibcftb pfrbgb mfcbr ue fgubria rbspbgta f qub b` daib`a sbgube-
ghf` ea gaesthtuyb eh ue dfrga gaegbptuf` eh uef tbaräf. Eflfdurf (68=;) y Wfcfthbr
(6886) sasthbebe qub b` beoaqub pragbsf` ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf ea gaesthtuyb ue dfr-
ga gaegbptuf`. B``a sb ibcb f qub ea sb hibethgfe `fs vfrhfc`bs gräthgfs (bstfs, fsä
gada `as supubstas, pfrbgbe gfdchfr ib uef btfpf f `f atrf) qub pbrdhthräfe bxp`h-gfr b` pragbsa ‐gadp`bta— ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf. ^ar su pfrtb, Wfcfthbr (6886, 6888)
frdf qub `f mburästhgf ib `fs btfpfs tfdpaga gaesthtuyb uef tbaräf, pubsta qub ea
gudp`b gae `as grhtbrhas qub usuf`dbetb sae uth`hzfias pfrf juzkfr f uef tbaräf2.
Betrb bstas grhtbrhas hegudp`hias b` futar ibstfgf `f ea hibethgfgh÷e ib ofgtarbs
gfusf`bs qub pbrdhtfe bxp`hgfr b` pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf.
F juhgha ib `as futarbs ghtfias, b` beoaqub pragbsf` ib `fs pa`äthgfs bs ‗be b` dbjar
ib `as gfsas‗ ue daib`a, be `f dbihif qub gae è` sb hetbetf rbprbsbetfr a ibsgrhchr(pbra ea bxp`hgfr) uef shtufgh÷e bspbgägf. F bstf dhsdf gaeg`ush÷e ``bkf Feirbsae
(68;2), uea ib `as futarbs qub dæs sb mf agupfia ib ibsfrra``fr `f prapubstf ib @fs-
swb``, fuequb su justhgfgh÷e rbshib be qub ‐ififs `f gadp bjhifi y `f ihvbrshifi ib`
pragbsa ib ”ofcrhgfgh÷e‘ ib fs pa äthgfs púc`hgfs, b ibsfrra``a ib f`kuef g`fsb ib tba-
räf kbebrf` iatfif ib ue fdp`ha paibr bxp`hgfthva, bs uef fsphrfgh÷e hrrbf`— (68;2: 7?).
3.3. Whdp`hgfgh÷e vbrsus gadp`bjhifi
Ref ib `fs gräthgfs dæs ibsphfififs qub sb `b mfe oardu`fia f` daib`a sbgubeghf` bs
qub gaesthtuyb uef mbrrfdhbetf mburästhgf qub shdp`hgf bxgbshvfdbetb `f rbf`hifi.
@a qub sb `b mf gubsthaefia sae `as supubsta ib `hebf`hifi y sbgubeghf`hifi sacrb `as
guf`bs sb fshbetf b` daib`a. Dugmas ib `as gräthgas mfe sucrfyfia qub dugmfs pa`äth-
gfs ea shkube hebf`dbetb `f sbgubeghf ib btfpfs prbbstfc`bghif (Wfcfthbr, 6886< btbrs,
6883< Jame, 688=). Be dugmas gfsas `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ea gadhbezfe par `f btfpf ib
`f fkbeif, eh tfdpaga gaeg`uybe gae `f bvf`ufgh÷e, shea qub sub`b mfcbr sa`fpfdhbe-
tas betrb `fs btfpfs a heg`usa ‗be f`kuefs shtufghaebs bspbgägfs‗ rbtragbsas.
2 Wbkúe Wfcfthbr, uef tbaräf ibcb gudp`hr gae as shkuhbetbs grhtbrhas: ‐6. Ibcb sbr ÷khgfdbetb ga-mbrbetb. @as tèrdheas prheghpf`bs ibcbe bstfr g`frfdbetb ibehias y fs rb`fghaebs prheghpf`bs ibcbe
sbr ÷khgfdbetb gaeshstbetbs. (…)< 3. Ibcb tbebr ofgtarbs gfusf`bs g`fras y ue sbethia ib` pragbsa gfu-sf`. @fs tbaräfs ghbetägfs sae tbaräfs gfusf`bs qub cusgfe bxp`hgfr g÷da agurrhbrae ghbrtas thpas ib
obe÷dbeas (….)< 7. F`khefs ib `fs prapashghaebs dæs hdpartfetbs ibcbe sbr bdpärhgfdbetb of`sfc`bs.
(…)< 9. B` f`gfegb ib `f tbaräf ibcb sbr g`fra y rb`fthvfdbetb fdp`ha (…)< y 2. @f tbaräf ibcb sbr ”oèrth`‘,bs ibghr, (6) ibcb ifr arhkbe f gaeg`ushaebs qub ea sbfe acvhfs (…), y (3) ibcb praiughr uef gfethifirb`fthvfdbetb hdpartfetb ib prbihgghaebs hetbrbsfetbs par gfif supubsta— (6888: 733).
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@`fdf `f ftbegh÷e heg`usa qub f` hetbrhar ib` beoaqub pragbsf` ib `fs pa`äthgfs sb
fsudf gada rbobrbeghf hesas`fyfc`b pfrf `as bstuihas rb`fthvas f `f btfpf ib fkbeif
y ibehgh÷e ib `as prac`bdfs púc`hgas, f ue futar qub mf gubsthaefia `as supubstas
ib `hebf`hifi y rfghaef`hifi sacrb `as qub sb fshbetf b` daib`a sbgubeghf` (Lhekiae,
68=9)?. F`ka shdh`fr agurrb be b` gfdpa ib `as bstuihas ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e, be bs- pbghf` gae fqub``as trfcfjas qub ibsib ue beoaqub cattad-up (B`darb, 68=>, 68=2<
@hpsly, 68=>) mfe ibsffia `as prhdbras bstuihas ([h`ifvsly y ^rbssdfe, 68;7<
Kuee, 68;=< Cfrifgm, 68=>) qub sb mhghbrae be bstb gfdpa cfja ib `f mburästhgf ib
`fs btfpfs.
3.7. B` ra` ib `fs hibfs y b` fprbeihzfjb
Atrf ib `fs gräthgfs qub sb `b mf oardu`fia f` daib`a sbgubeghf` rbshib be qub ea crheif ue bspfgha pfrf hegarparfr b` ra` ib` gaeaghdhbeta y `fs hibfs y ib` fprbeih-
zfjb gada ofgtarbs bxp`hgfthvas ib` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. ^ar supubsta,
bstf tbeibeghf f hkearfr `f hdpartfeghf bxp`hgfthvf-gfusf` ib `fs hibfs trfsghbeib b`
gfdpa ib `fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs. Gada sasthbeb Gfdau: ‐Ea bs uef gurhashifi
dbear b` mbgma ib qub cubef pfrtb ib `as gubethstfs saghf`bs ‗quhbebs sb supaeb
hevhbrtbe uef pargh÷e hdpartfetb ib su thbdpa be praiughr y ihsguthr hibfs‗ `b atar-
kube f `fs dhsdfs ue bsgfsa pfpb` bxp`hgfthva be `f iheædhgf ib `as mbgmas saghf`bsy pa`äthgas. Dæs prag`hvbs f grbbr be `f heubeghf ib `fs bstrugturfs bgae÷dhgfs y/a
ib `fs b`bgghaebs bstrftèkhgfs cfsfifs be b` gæ`gu`a ib futahetbrès, b` ra` ib `fs hibfs
be `f bxp`hgfgh÷e ib` gfdcha saghf` mf agupfia ue `ukfr dfrkhef`, gufeia ea saspb-
gmfia ib hesfefc`b hekbeuhifi— (688;: 2;).
Whe bdcfrka, ibsib ef`bs ib `as föas => y prheghphas ib `as 8> pfrbgb rbkhstrfsb
ue ‐davhdhbeta— ihrhkhia f ‐paebr f `fs hibfs be prhdbr p`fea— (Mf``, 68=8). Bsta
mf gaeiughia f qub futarbs gada Wfcfthbr (6886) y Wfcfthbr y Jbelhes-Wdhtm (6887)
gadhbegbe f ibsfrra``fr ue eubva dfrga gaegbptuf` a tbaräf (b` dfrga ib `fs gaf`h-ghaebs pradatarfs) qub thbeb `f prbtbesh÷e ib atarkfr f `fs hibfs y sfcbrbs tègehgas
ue ra` prbpaeibrfetb (fuequb ea par b``a ibtbrdhefetb) pfrf bxp`hgfr b` pragbsa y
`as gfdchas ib `fs pa`äthgfs. Ib` dhsda daia, fuequb ibsib ue dfrga gaegbptuf`
? Ib mbgma b` tbxta ib Lhekiae (68=9) mf shia gaegbchia gada `f rbobrbeghf oueifghaef` ib` beoa-
qub ib `fs garrhbetbs dú`thp`bs. @fdbetfc`bdbetb ea fef`hzfrbdas fquä bstf dfrga gaegbptuf`. ^frfquhbebs ibsbbe fggbibr f uef gfrfgtbrhzfgh÷e prb`hdhefr ib bstb beoaqub sb rbgadhbeif `bbr b` tbxtaib Zfmfrhfihs (3>>;).
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f`tbrefthva (`f tbaräf ib `f gaestruggh÷e saghf`), futarbs gada Ohsgmbr y Oarbstbr
(6887) a Wgmebhibr b Hekrfd (688;) `b atarkfe f `as vf`arbs a shstbdfs ib grbbeghfs
ue `ukfr prhvh`bkhfia pfrf betbeibr b` pragbsa ib b`bggh÷e ib hestrudbetas ib pa`ä-
thgf púc`hgf y `f gaetheuhifi a gfdcha ib ghbrtfs pa`äthgfs.
Fshdhsda, b` beoaqub pragbsf` ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf ea `b atarkf ue `ukfr ibs-tfgfia pfrf `f bxp`hgfgh÷e ib `as gfdchas a gaetheuhifibs ib `fs pa`äthgfs f `as pra-
gbsas ib fprbeihzfjb qub pubibe arhkhefrsb be `f bxpbrhbeghf, tfeta ib `as pa`hgy-
dflbrs y fef`hstfs a bxpbrtas qub hetbrvhbebe be `as pragbsas ib oardu`fgh÷e ib `fs
pa`äthgfs, gada ib `as ‐hdp`bdbetfiarbs— ib `fs pa`äthgfs be gubsth÷e. Bstf gräthgf
mf shia chbe p`fetbfif par Wfcfthbr y Jbelhes-Wdhtm (6887), y mf gaetrhcuhia f da`-
ibfr `f tbaräf gfusf` qub `as futarbs ibsfrra``fe cfja b` beoaqub ib `fs gaf`hghaebs
pradatarfs.
7. BE CRWGF IB YBASÄFW ^FSF B@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
Ibchia f `f krfe gadp`bjhifi qub gfrfgtbrhzf f` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs, b` fef`hstf
ibcb cusgfr f`kuef oardf ib rbiughr bsf gadp`bjhifi (she hkearfr`f) f e ib gad-
prbeibr y bxp`hgfr `as obe÷dbeas a pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs bstuihfifs. Whe iuif, sae `as
supubstas `as qub gudp`be `fs oueghaebs ib hetbrdbihfgh÷e dæs hdpartfetbs. ^ar
ue `fia, parqub sae `as qub bstrugturfe eubstrf oardf ib gaegbchr `f rbf`hifi y f`dhsda thbdpa `b heihgfe f` fef`hstf què fspbgtas ib `f rbf`hifi ibcbe sbr acsbrvf-
ias. ar atra, parqub sae as qub ‐ibebe fs gftbkaräfs be fs guf`bs as obe÷dbeas
ibcbe fkrupfrsb— (Wfcfthbr, 6888: 9).
Whe bdcfrka, pfrf qub bstas supubstas pbrdhtfe b` bstfc`bghdhbeta ib ibtbrdh-
efifs rb`fghaebs ib gfusf`hifi (gae b` e ib gadprbeibr y bxp`hgfr obe÷dbeas y
pragbsas ib `f rbf`hifi) rbsu`tf ebgbsfrha hegarparfr`as be b` dfrga ib tbaräfs ghbetä-
gfs gambrbetbs y chbe frthgu`fifs. Wa`a f pfrthr ib b``fs bs pashc`b ibrhvfr ib dfeb-
rf ibiugthvf ue gaejueta ib mhp÷tbshs qub pubife sbr sadbthifs f uef gaetrfstfgh÷e
bdpärhgf. Bs par bstf rfz÷e qub ‗gada ihjbrf Wfcfthbr mfgb vbhetb föas ftræs‗ sb
vub`vb hdprbsgheihc`b ibsfrra``fr dæs y dbjarbs tbaräfs.
Iurfetb `as ú`thdas vbhethghega föas sb mfe praiughia heeavfghaebs tb÷rhgfs shk-
ehgfthvfs be b` gfdpa ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. F` gf`ar ib `fs gräthgfs f `fs qub sb
sadbth÷ f` daib`a sbgubeghf` (qub be pfrforfsbfeia f Wfcfthbr mf iurfia dæs qub su
praphf uth`hifi) gadbezfrae f ibsfrra``frsb f`kueas eubvas dfrgas tb÷rhgas pradbtb-
iarbs qub hetbetfe bxp`hgfr b` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs. Be `f fgtuf`hifi b` bsgbefrha bsdugma dæs pradhsarha qub fybr, fuequb b``a shkehqub f bdbrkbeghf ib uef du`thp`h-
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ghifi ib tbaräfs y beoaqubs ea shbdprb gaeshstbetbs betrb sä. Gada sböf`f Wgm`fkbr, b`
gfdpa ib fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sb gfrfgtbrhzf may par ‐hs`fs ib daetföfs ib bstrugturf
tb÷rhgf, betrbdbzg`fifs y agfshaef`dbetb uehifs betrb sä par ga`hefs ib dètaias y
gaegbptas gadpfrthias y trfcfja bdpärhga, taia raibfia par agèfeas ib trfcfja ibs-
grhpthva, she rb`fgh÷e gae ehekuef daetföf ib tbaräf— (688;: 69).F gaetheufgh÷e sb prbsbetfræe y ibsgrhchræe f`kueas ib `as beoaqubs a dfrgas
tb÷rhgas dæs hdpartfetbs b heuybetbs ib `as ú`thdas vbhetb föas. @f ftbegh÷e `f
gbetrfrbdas be: 6) b` beoaqub a pbrspbgthvf hesthtughaef`hstf, 3) b` beoaqub ib rbibs
ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf, 7) `f tbaräf ib `f gaestruggh÷e saghf` y 9) b` dfrga ib `fs gaf`h-
ghaebs pradatarfs.
7.6. B` beoaqub hesthtughaef`Gae cfsb be fpartfghaebs tb÷rhgfs pravbehbetbs ib ihsthetfs ihsghp`hefs, b` beoaqub hes-
thtughaef`hstf ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs tuva su arhkbe f ef`bs ib `f iègfif ib` ;>. Whe
bdcfrka, `as fpartbs dæs shstbdæthgas sb praiugbe be `f prhdbrf dhtfi ib `f iègfif
ib `as => gae `f puc`hgfgh÷e ib ias trfcfjas g`æshgas: ‐Ymb Ymrbb [ar`is ao Fgthae: F
Dbtftmbarbthgf` Wyetbshs ao Hesthtuthaef` Fpprafgmbs— (Lhsbr y Astrad, 68=3) y ‐Ymb
Ebw Hesthtuthaef hsd: Arkfehzfthaef` Ofgtars he a hthgf` @hob— (Dfrgm y A`sbe, 68=9).
F pbsfr ib qub bstas trfcfjas ifræe `ukfr f ias thpas ib garrhbetbs ibetra ib`beoaqub hesthtughaef`hstf, fdcas rbgaeagbe `f ebgbshifi ib rbgupbrfr `f gfpfghifi
bxp`hgfthvf qub `fs hesthtughaebs thbebe sacrb b` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs
(^btbrs, 6883). Bstb ra` mfcäf shia dbeasprbghfia ‗gufeia ea hkearfia‗ iurfetb `f
iègfif ib `as ?> y ;> be fqub``as bstuihas qub sb mfcäfe gbetrfia be fef`hzfr `fs
ihsthetfs btfpfs ib` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs ibsib beoaqubs p`urf`hstfs a f pfrthr ib
beoaqubs bstrugturf`hstfs trfihghaef`bs (Hddbrkut, 3>>?).
Be `as trfcfjas ib Lhsbr y Astrad (68=3) y Astrad (6886, 6888) sb ibsfrra``÷ ue
bsqubdf kbebrf` pfrf b` bstuiha ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. @f prapubstf gaeshstäf befef`hzfr ib què dfebrf `fs hesthtughaebs fobgtfe `as hegbethvas qub beorbetfe `as
heihvhiuas, sus gadpartfdhbetas y sus oardfs ib hetbrfggh÷e, heuybeia fsä sacrb
b` rbsu`tfia ib` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs. Cfja bstb beoaqub `as heihvhiuas sae gaesh-
ibrfias fgtarbs rfghaef`bs qub apbrfe cfja ihsthetas y vfrhfias betareas hesthtugha-
ef`bs (rbk`fs ib jubka), shbeia bstas betareas as qub heuybe sacrb sus bxpbgtfthvfs
y gadpartfdhbeta bstrftèkhga.
^frf bstb beoaqub `f frbef ib fggh÷e gaesthtuyb `f uehifi gaegbptuf`. @f frbefib fggh÷e ‐mfgb rbobrbeghf f` bspfgha saghf` be b` qub `as heihvhiuas hetbrfgtúfe
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
622
hetbrgfdchfe chbebs y sbrvhghas, sa`ughaefe prac`bdfs, sb iadhefe betrb sä, a sb
pb`bfe (…) (Astrad, 6888: 3=). Yaif frbef ib fggh÷e gadprbeib: (6) uef shtufgh÷e
ib fggh÷e< y (3) `as fgtarbs. @f shtufgh÷e ib fggh÷e pubib gfrfgtbrhzfrsb f pfrthr ib
shbtb vfrhfc`bs: f) `as pfrthghpfetbs, c) `fs pashghaebs bspbgägfs f sbr agupfifs par
`as pfrthghpfetbs, g) b` gaejueta ib fgghaebs pbrdhthifs y su gaebxh÷e gae `as rbsu`-tfias, i) `as rbsu`tfias patbeghf`bs qub bstæe gaebgtfias f sbgubeghfs ib fgghaebs
heihvhiuf`bs, b) b` gaetra` qub gfif uea ib `as pfrthghpfetbs thbeb sacrb `f b`bggh÷e,
o) `f heoardfgh÷e ihspaehc`b pfrf `as pfrthghpfetbs sacrb `f bstrugturf ib `f shtufgh÷e
ib fggh÷e, y k) `as gastas y cbebghas fshkefias f `fs fgghaebs y `as rbsu`tfias. Be
tfeta, `f eagh÷e ib fgtar heg`uyb supubstas sacrb guftra thpas ib vfrhfc`bs: f) `as
rbgursas qub gfif fgtar trfb f uef shtufgh÷e ib fggh÷e, c) `f vf`arfgh÷e qub `as fg-
tarbs fshkefe f `as bstfias ib` dueia y `fs fgghaebs, g) `f oardf be qub `as fgtarbsfiquhbrbe, pragbsfe y uth`hzfe b` gaeaghdhbeta y `f heoardfgh÷e ihspaehc`b, i) `as
pragbsas qub usfe `as fgtarbs pfrf sb`bgghaefr `as gursas ib fggh÷e. @as supubstas
sacrb `as qub arhkhef`dbetb sb fsbet÷ b` feæ`hshs hesthtughaef` sb cfsfe be ue daib`a
ib fgtar rfghaef`-dfxhdhzfiar, gae prbobrbeghfs g`frfs y aribefifs, b heoardfgh÷e
gadp`btf. F`kueas daib`as dæs sasthgfias mfe heg`uhia b` thbdpa y `as rbgursas
qub sb ibsthefe f dfetbebr `fs rb`fghaebs betrb fgtarbs fsä gada `f rbputfgh÷e. X
f`kueas dæs rbf`hstfs mfe p`fetbfia `f ebgbshifi ib hegarparfr `f of`hch`hifi y b`
fprbeihzfjb f trfvès ib` brrar y rbgaeagbr `f gfpfghifi `hdhtfif ib `as fgtarbs pfrfrbuehr y pragbsfr heoardfgh÷e.
Oubetb: Fifptfia ib Astrad, Kfriebr y [f`lbr (6889: 7;).
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
62?
B` feæ`hshs hesthtughaef` vf dæs f``æ ib `f gfrfgtbrhzfgh÷e ib `fs frbefs ib fggh÷e
y ea fsudb par ififs `fs vfrhfc`bs qub heuybe sacrb `f shtufgh÷e ib fggh÷e y `f bs-
trugturf dathvfghaef` ib `as fgtarbs. Be bobgta, pfrf `as hesthtughaef`hstfs `fs frbefs
ib fggh÷e bstæe fobgtfifs/heuhifs par atra gaejueta ib vfrhfc`bs: (6) `as fgubrias
hesthtughaef`bs ‗rbk`fs be usa‗ qub ibebe què fgghaebs bstæe pbrdhthifs, bxhkhifs
a pramhchifs< (3) `as ftrhcutas ib` dueia oäshga be b` guf` sb fgtúf< y (7) `fs gfrfgtb-
rästhgfs ib `f gaduehifi be `f guf` `f fggh÷e bs ``bvfif f gfca.
Whe bdcfrka, `as hesthtughaef`hstfs ea sb gaeoardfe gae fef`hzfr g÷da heuybe
bstas ofgtarbs sacrb `fs frbefs ib fggh÷e heihvhiuf`bs. ^ar b` gaetrfrha, ifia qub `f
dfyar pfrtb ib `f rbf`hifi saghf` sb gadpaeb ib vfrhfs frbefs gaebgtfifs be oardf
sbgubeghf` a shdu`tæebf, `f ef`hifi ib` feæ`hshs hesthtughaef` bstuihfr ib què df-ebrf bstæe vhegu`fifs `fs ihsthetfs frbefs ib fggh÷e. Ifia qub be dugmas gfsas `as
fgtarbs ea pubibe gfdchfr ib oardf shkehgfthvf `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs ib `f gadueh-
ifi a `as ftrhcutas rb`bvfetbs ib` dueia, gufeia `as heihvhiuas ibsbfe gfdchfr `f
bstrugturf ib hegbethvas y b`bdbetas ihsufshvas qub beorbetfe `as pfrthghpfetbs be
rbf`hifibs gaestruhifs saghf`dbetb, pfrf kuhfr (a gaetra`fr) f `as pfrthghpfetbs mfghf
ue pftr÷e ihobrbetb ib rbsu`tfias, `a mfgbe hetbetfeia gfdchfr `fs rbk`fs, bs ibghr,
dbihfetb b` gfdcha ib `as fgubrias hesthtughaef`bs. ^bra taifs `fs rbk`fs bstæe feh-
ififs be atra gaejueta ib rbk`fs qub ibeb g÷da b` prhdbr gaejueta ib rbk`fs pubib
gfdchfrsb. Bs par b``a qub gufeia sb fcarif `f gubsth÷e ib` gfdcha hesthtughaef` ‐bs
ebgbsfrha rbgaeagbr:
h) @as gfdchas be `fs rbk`fs uth`hzfifs pfrf aribefr `f fggh÷e be ue ehvb`
agurrbe ibetra ib ue gaejueta ib rbk`fs fgtuf`dbetb ‐jfia— be ue ehvb`
dæs praoueia.
hh) @as gfdchas be fs rbk`fs ib ehvb`bs dæs praoueias kbebrf`dbetb sae dæs
ihoägh`bs y dæs gastasas< par a tfeta, bxhstb uef bstfch`hifi grbghbetb be fsbxpbgtfthvfs gaduebs ib `as heihvhiuas qub hetbrfgtúfe ib fgubria gae ue
gaejueta ib rbk`fs— (Astrad, 6888: 9=).
Be bstb pueta rbsu`tf betaegbs úth` ihobrbeghfr ihsthetas ehvb`bs ib fggh÷e: (6) b`
ehvb` apbrfghaef`, qub thbeb qub vbr gae `fs fgghaebs ihrbgtfs ib `as heihvhiuas be
rb`fgh÷e gae atras heihvhiuas y gae b` dueia oäshga (rbk`fs apbrfghaef`bs a S6)< (3)
b` ehvb` ib b`bggh÷e ga`bgthvf, be b` guf` `as heihvhiuas bstfc`bgbe `fs rbk`fs qub ka-
chbrefe sus fgghaebs f ehvb` apbrfghaef` (rbk`fs ib b`bggh÷e ga`bgthvf a S3)< y (7) b`
ehvb` gaesthtughaef`, be b` guf` as heihvhiuas bstfc`bgbe fs rbk`fs y pragbihdhbetas
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
62;
pfrf tadfr ibghshaebs ga`bgthvfs (rbk`fs gaesthtughaef`bs a S7).
B` dhsda fgtar a krupa ib fgtarbs pubib davbrsb be ihsthetas ehvb`bs ib fggh÷e.
Be f`kuefs ghrguestfeghfs `as fgtarbs cusgfe dbjarfr sus rbsu`tfias dbihfetb ue
dfrga ib rbk`fs ifia< pbra be atrfs cusgfe gfdchfr `fs rbk`fs pfrf fudbetfr `fs
pracfch`hifibs ib actbebr `as rbsu`tfias prbobrhias y ib hdpbihr qub sb ``bkub f (aihsdheuhr `f pracfch`hifi ib) rbsu`tfias ea ibsbfias. Ib bstb daia, ibsib bstf pbrs-
pbgthvf b` gfdcha ib pa`äthgfs sb gaeghcb gada fgghaebs tadfifs be `as ehvb`bs ib
b`bggh÷e ga`bgthvf y gaesthtughaef`, arhbetfifs f gfdchfr as fgubrias hesthtughaef`bs
Oubetb: Astrad (3>>;: 92).
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62=
B` trfcfja ib Dfrgm y A`sbe (68=9) supusa uef ‐rutf— f`tbrefthvf ib feæ`hshs
hesthtughaef`. Wu gaegbpgh÷e ib` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs pfrtb ib` supubsta ib qub
bstæ kacbrefia par `f ‐`÷khgf ib `a fpraphfia— dæs qub par ue pragbsa ib b`bggh÷e
rfghaef` gaestrböhia par b` bobgta qub `fs rbk`fs b hesthtughaebs thbebe sacrb `fs fg-ghaebs y ibghshaebs ib `as fgtarbs. Fdcas futarbs thbeibe f rbgmfzfr `f hibf ib qub
b` gæ`gu`a rfghaef` b hestrudbetf` kuäf `f fggh÷e, y sb hetbrbsfe par fef`hzfr b` ra`
qub ibsbdpböfe as vf`arbs (dæs qub fs rbk`fs) gada arhbetfiarfs ib fs b`bgghaebs
ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
B``a ea supaeb, she bdcfrka, fpfrtfrsb ib` feæ`hshs hesthtughaef`. Cfja bstf
fpraxhdfgh÷e `fs hesthtughaebs ea sae gaegbchifs gada bstrugturfs ib hegbethvas
‐vf`arfthvfdbetb ebutrf`bs— shea gada partfiarfs y prapfkfiarfs ib ghbrtas vf`arbssaghf`bs. Bstas vf`arbs pubibe sbr pfrf as fgtarbs dæs a dbeas ibsbfc`bs, rfz÷e par
`f guf` `fs pa`äthgfs ibcbe sbr pbrghchifs gada uef ihsputf betrb ihsthetas gaejuetas
ib vf`arbs hesthtughaef`bs.
Re trfcfja ga`bgthva f`tbrefthva qub rbgupbrf ibsib `f Frkbethef (a Fdèrhgf @f-
thef) `f hdpartfeghf ib` feæ`hshs hesthtughaef` pfrf `f bxp`hgfgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs sae `fs gaetrhcughaebs rbf`hzfifs par Wtbhe, Yaddfsh bt f`. (3>>?)< Wtbhe y
Yaddfsh (3>>=)< y Wgfrtfsgheh, Wph``br, Wtbhe y Yaddfsh (3>66). Bstas futarbs sas-
thbebe, be `äebf gae `a frdfia par Astrad, qub ‐`fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ea sae shd- p`bdbetb acjbtas ib b`bggh÷e pfrf ue p`fehgfiar saghf` qub hetbetf dfxhdhzfr b`
chbebstfr ib `f pa c`fgh÷e. Dæs chbe, `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs bdbrkbe ib ue pragbsa ib
tadf ib ibghshaebs qub heva`ugrf uef du`thp`hghifi ib fgtarbs pa`äthgas qub hetbrfg-
túfe be uef vfrhbifi ib bsgbefrhas— Wgfrtfsgheh, Wph``br, Wtbhe y Yaddfsh (3>66: 3).
Bstb beoaqub fsudb qub bs b` pragbsa ib oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs (^O^) b` qub if
oardf f fs pa`äthgfs, fs hdpu`sf ibsib f hibf mfstf f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e y fs sasthbeb
(a ea) f `a `frka ib` thbdpa. Be bstb sbethia, `as rbsu`tfias actbehias par `fs pa`ä-thgfs púc`hgfs ibpbeibe, be krfe dbihif, ib `f gf`hifi ib` pragbsa ib oardu`fgh÷e
ib pa`äthgfs f trfvès ib` guf` bstfs sb ibcftbe, sb fprubcfe y sb hdp`bdbetfe. Ib `fs
gfrfgtbrästhgfs fibgufifs a ea qub fsudf b` ^O^ ibpbeibræ `f efturf`bzf y gf`hifi
ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
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6?>
`f gaapbrfgh÷e. Bstfs heg`uybe b` eúdbra ib fgtarbs pa`äthgas g`fvb, sus marhzaetbs
tbdparf`bs, `f orbgubeghf ib su hetbrfggh÷e, `f efturf`bzf ib `as bsgbefrhas be `as
guf`bs hetbrfgtúfe y `f ihspaehch`hifi ib dbgfehsdas ib beoargbdbet qub `as ac`h-
kube f gudp`hr gae sus gadpradhsas.
Ohef`dbetb, b` oueghaefdhbeta ib` O , f f vbz, bstæ ibtbrdhefia par fs hesthtu-ghaebs pa`äthgfs praphfs ib gfif pfäs, gada `f efturf`bzf prbshibeghf`/pfr`fdbetfrhf
ib` kachbrea, fs rbk`fs b`bgtarf`bs bxhstbetbs, `f bstrugturf obibrf` ib` pfäs y `f bxhs-
tbeghf ib ue paibr juihghf` heibpbeihbetb;.
7.3. B` beoaqub ib rbibs ib pa`äthgfs
B` beoaqub ib rbibs ib pa`äthgfs mf bdbrkhia gada ue dfrga pradbtbiar f dbihf-
ias ib `as föas => pbra mf bxpbrhdbetfia ue hetbesa ibsfrra``a ibsib `as 8> mfstf`f fgtuf`hifi. Ihgma beoaqub pfrtb ib` rbgaeaghdhbeta ib qub `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs
bdbrkbe ib `f hetbrfggh÷e betrb fgtarbs kucbrefdbetf`bs, bstftf`bs, fgtarbs saghf`bs,
pa`äthgas y bgae÷dhgas. Ib bstb daia, `f fidhehstrfgh÷e (b` Kachbrea y/a b` Bstfia)
ibjf ib sbr gaegbchia gada b` fgtar jbrærquhga y iadhefetb be `f b`fcarfgh÷e b hd-
p`bdbetfgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
@as futarbs qub sb bedfrgfe be bstb beoaqub uth`hzfe b` gaegbpta ib rbibs ib
pa`äthgfs be f` dbeas ias sbethias. ^ar ue `fia bstæe fqub``as qub uth`hzfe b` gae-gbpta pfrf fp`hgfr`a ib oardf kbeèrhgf f guf`quhbr thpa a pftr÷e ib hetbrfggh÷e qub
sb bstfc`bgb betrb fgtarbs púc`hgas y prhvfias be b` dfrga ib sucshstbdfs ib pa`äth-
gf púc`hgf bspbgägas. Wbkúe bstf fgbpgh÷e, `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgf ea rbbrbe f uef
eubvf oardf ib kachbrea, shea qub bxhstb ue fdp`ha fcfehga ib pashc`bs pftraebs ib
hetbrfggh÷e qub sb pubibe ibsfrra``fr be b` ædchta ib `f oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs.
^ar atra `fia, bstæe quhbebs uth`hzfe b` gaegbpta pfrf mfgbr rbobrbeghf f uef eub-
vf oardf (a bstrugturf) ib kachbrea, ihsthetf tfeta f `fs jbrfrquäfs arkfehzfifs vbrth-
gf`dbetb gada f `fs bstrugturfs ib dbrgfia arkfehzfifs be oardf marhzaetf`. Bstasfutarbs paebe b` èeofshs be `f gaarihefgh÷e marhzaetf` y futaarkfehzfif betrb fgta-
rbs púc`hgas y prhvfias hdp`hgfias be `f rbsa`ugh÷e ib prac`bdfs ib hetbrès gadúe.
; Ibsib `f sbkueif dhtfi ib f iègfif ib 8> mfstf `f obgmf, b` beoaqub hesthtughaef`hstf mf fiquhrhiaue eubva y dæs sasthgfia ibsfrra``a. Ib `f dfea ib `as trfcfjas phaebras ib Ysbcb`hs (6882), Wtbpfe
(3>>9), y F`bdfe y Ysbcb`hs (3>>;) sb mf ibsfrra``fia `f tbaräf ib `as fgtarbs gae paibr ib vbta. Bstbeubva beoaqub shetbthzf b hetbkrf ‗gae ebs gadpfrfthvas‗ taif uef fcueifetb `htbrfturf qub sb mf
ibsfrra``fia be tarea f `f heubeghf qub thbebe `fs hesthtughaebs. @f tbaräf ib `as fgtarbs ib vbta sb
hetbrbsf duy bspbghf`dbetb be `f bxp`hgfgh÷e ib` gfdcha (a ea) ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6?6
@fs rbibs ib pa`äthgf sb gaesthtuybe fsä be uef eubvf oardf ib kacbrefezf gfrfgtbrh-
zfif par b` prbiadheha ib rb`fghaebs marhzaetf`bs, ibsgbetrf`hzfifs b heoardf`bs, `a
qub paeb ib dfehbsta qub b` pragbsa ib oardu`fgh÷e b hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs
ea sb begubetrf gadp`btfdbetb bstrugturfia par frrbk`as hesthtughaef`bs oardf`bs
(Lbehs y Wgmebhibr, 6886).@a dæs hetbrbsfetb ib bstf fpraxhdfgh÷e bs qub `fs rbibs sae gaegbchifs gada
futakacbrefifs y gae gfpfghifi pfrf rbshsthr `fs ihrbgthvfs ib` Kachbrea (Smaibs,
688;). @as fgtarbs oardf`dbetb rbspaesfc`bs ib `fs ibghshaebs (ib b`fcarfgh÷e y
bjbgugh÷e) ea sae `as úehgas ‗y f vbgbs eh shquhbrf `as dæs heuybetbs‗ f` dadbeta
ib tadfr ibghshaebs, `a qub ea hdp`hgf qub ea hetbetbe kbsthaefr `fs rbibs ib pa`ä-
thgfs pfrf pradavbr `f sa`ugh÷e gaejuetf ib prac`bdfs púc`hgas. @f kbsth÷e ib `fs
rbibs rbquhbrb gaarihefr `fs bstrftbkhfs betrb fgtarbs qub pasbbe prbobrbeghfs y db-tfs ihsthetfs be tarea f ue ibtbrdhefia prac`bdf qub rbquhbrb sa`ugh÷e. Whkuhbeia
f Lhglbrt y Lappbejfe (688;) b` èxhta be `f kbsth÷e ib `fs rbibs ibpbeib ib ghbrtfs
gaeihghaebs: f) b` eúdbra ib fgtarbs qub pfrthghpf be `f rbi, c) `f gadp`bjhifi ib `f
rbi, betbeihif gada `f ihvbrshifi ib fgtarbs qub pfrthghpfe, g) b` krfia be qub `fs
rbibs sae futa-rbobrbeghf`bs, pubsta qub `fs pashch`hifibs ib hetbrvbegh÷e bxtbref
sbræe `hdhtfifs gufeia bstfs sbfe sudfdbetb futarbobrbeghf`bs, y i) b` krfia ib
gaehgthvhifi f` hetbrhar ib `f rbi.
Be b` beoaqub ib rbibs ib pa`äthgfs, b` acjbta ib bstuiha ea `a gaesthtuyb sa`a b`feæ`hshs ib f gaduehgfgh÷e rbku`fr b hetbrgfdcha ib heoardfgh÷e betrb as fgtarbs f`
hetbrhar ib `f rbi, shea fibdæs b` feæ`hshs ib `as b`bdbetas qub ibtbrdhefe `f gaes-
truggh÷e, dfetbehdhbeta y bva`ugh÷e ib `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs (bsta bs, `fs
rbibs gada vfrhfc`b ibpbeihbetb) y f heubeghf ib as ihsthetas thpas ib rbibs sacrb
`f pashch`hifi ib gfdcha be `fs pa`äthgfs (bs ibghr, `f bstrugturf ib `fs rbibs gada
vfrhfc`b heibpbeihbetb).
Wh chbe be `as ú`thdas föas vfrhas hevbsthkfiarbs mfe fivbrthia `f prbsbeghf ibihvbrsas ofgtarbs qub pairäfe heuhr be b` surkhdhbeta y `f oardf (bstrugturf) ib `fs
rbibs ib pa`äthgfs, fúe shkub shbeia ue ibsfoäa ‐hibethgfr gae prbghsh÷e as ibtbrdh-
efetbs ib fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs y gaebgtfr bstas ibtbrdhefetbs gae fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs
bspbgägfs ib `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs— (Fifd y Lrhbsh, 3>>;).
Whkuhbeia f Fifd y Lrhbsh (3>>;) pubibe rbgaeagbrsb trbs thpas ib ibtbrdhefetbs:
h) `as gaetbxtas trfesefghaef`bs: `f gaesthtugh÷e ib fdchbetbs ib pa`äthgfs
hetbrefghaef`hzfias (par bjbdp`a, be b` dfrga ib f hetbkrfgh÷e be f Reh÷e
Burapbf) pubibe heuhr sacrb `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs f ehvb` efghaef`, f` rb-
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ihstrhcuhr rbgursas betrb `as fgtarbs ib `f rbi, pbra tfdchèe f` fcrhr eubvas
puetas ib fggbsa y grbfr eubvas bspfghas ib fgtufgh÷e pfrf `f hegarparf-
gh÷e ib eubvas tbdfs ib pa`äthgfs.
hh) B` gaetbxta efghaef`: fquä sb rbgaeagbe trbs thpas ib vfrhfc`bs qub heu-
ybe sacrb b` surkhdhbeta y bstrugturf ib `f rbi. ^ar ue `fia, `f bstrugtu-rf hesthtughaef` efghaef` oardf` heuyb be fdcas fspbgtas g`fvbs ib `fs
rbibs ib pa`äthgfs. @f thpa`akäf ib @hjpmfrt (6888) sacrb `fs ibdagrfghfs
eas pbrdhtb ihsthekuhr betrb bstrugturfs hesthtughaef`bs ib ue pfäs bspbgä-
ga ib fgubria gae b` krfia ib gaegbetrfgh÷e ib paibr. Be bstb sbethia sb
bspbrf qub `fs ibdagrfghfs gaesbesuf`bs gaetrhcuyfe f `f orfkdbetfgh÷e
ib` paibr ibetra ib `fs rbibs, dhbetrfs qub `fs ibdagrfghfs dfyarhtfrhfs
hegbethvbe `f gaesthtugh÷e ib rbibs iaeib b` paibr sb gaegbetrb be dfeasib ueas pagas fgtarbs. Fshdhsda, sb bspbrf qub as pftraebs ib hetbrfggh÷e
sbfe dæs gaapbrfthvas be `fs ibdagrfghfs ib gaesbesa y dæs gadpbththvas
be `fs ibdagrfghfs dfyarhtfrhfs. ^ar atra `fia, `fs frbefs fidhehstrfthvfs
tfdchèe heuybe sacrb `f bstrugturf ib `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs. Bstfs frbefs
fidhehstrfthvfs ibpbeibe (6) ib `f futaeadäf y gbetrf`hzfgh÷e ib` Bstfia
y (3) ib` shstbdf ib fsaghfghaebs ib hetbrès=. ^ar ú`thda, `f bxhstbeghf ib
bstrugturfs heoardf`bs (prægthgfs y pragbihdhbetas ea hesthtughaef`hzfias)
tfdchèe pubib sbr ibghshvf f `f marf ib bxp`hgfr `f gadpashgh÷e y bstrugtu-rf ib `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs.
hhh) @as gaetbxtas bspbgägas ib `as sucshstbdfs ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf: ihsthe-
tas trfcfjas mfe hibethgfia vfrhfc`bs kbebrf`bs ib pa`äthgfs bspbgägfs y
vfrhfc`bs shtufghaef`bs ib pa`äthgfs bspbgägfs shtufghaef`bs qub fobgtfe `f
= Gufeta dæs gbetrf`hzfia y fut÷eada bs b` Bstfia, dfyar sbræ su gfpfghifi ib hetbrvbegh÷e, bsibghr, dæs oubrtb sbræ. Ib` dhsda daia, guæeta dæs gbetrf`hzfifs y fut÷eadfs (ib sus dhbdcras)sae `fs prheghpf`bs fsaghfghaebs ib hetbrbsbs, bs ibghr, guæeta dæs oubrtb sae, dfyar bs su gfpfghifiib ebkaghfr y ib pfgtfr fgubrias vhegu`fetbs betrb sä y gae sus hetbr`agutarbs bstftf`bs. Whe bdcfrka,`f gadchefgh÷e ib `as ias b`bdbetas a ihdbeshaebs bs `a oueifdbetf` pfrf `f ihstrhcugh÷e ib paibry pfrf b` thpa ib hetbrfggh÷e qub sb praiugb f` hetbrhar ib `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs: sh fdcfs pfrtbs saehkuf`dbetb oubrtbs, bs ibghr, sh b` paibr sb gaegbetrf be fdcfs, `as pftraebs ib hetbrfggh÷e bstæe dæsgbetrf`hzfias y arhbetfias f` gaesbesa. Bstf bs `f mhp÷tbshs oueifdbetf` ib `f `htbrfturf ebagarparf-thvhstf (Wgmdhttbr 68;8). Wh fdcfs pfrtbs sae hkuf`dbetb ièch`bs, b` paibr bstfræ dæs orfkdbetfia ysb bspbrf qub `as pftraebs ib hetbrfggh÷e sbfe dæs shdètrhgas y gadpbththvas. Be b` gfsa ib qub `fs
fsaghfghaebs ib hetbrès sbfe dugma dæs oubrtbs, `as bsqubdfs futarbku`ftarhas sae b` rbsu`tfia dæsofgthc`b, dhbetrfs qub gufeia b` Bstfia bs dugma dæs oubrtb qub `as fgtarbs saghf`bs `fs hetbrvbegha-ebs ueh`ftbrf`bs ib `as fgtarbs bstftf`bs sb gaevhbrtbe be uef pashch`hifi pfrthgu`fr.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6?7
bstrugturf y b` gfdcha ib `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs. Ga`bdfe bt f`. (688;: 3;?)
frkudbetfe qub `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs bspbgägfs ib uef pa`äthgf thbeb heube-
ghf sacrb `f oardf ib `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs. @fs pa`äthgfs ihbrbe sbkúe `as
hegbethvas y rbgursas qub pravbbe pfrf `f oardfgh÷e ib krupas, `fs bxpbg-
tfthvfs qub kbebrfe betrb `as krupas a `fs dfsfs, su eatarhbifi/rb`bvfeghf pfrf `as púc`hgas ib dfsfs y `f trfzfch`hifi ib sus bobgtas. @fs vfrhfc`bs
shtufghaef`bs sb gbetrfe be `fs rfzaebs ib` gfdcha ibetra ib `fs rbibs ib
pa`äthgfs. Ib fgubria gae Cfudkfrtebr y Jaebs (6887) bstas ofgtarbs ibsbs-
tfch`hzfiarbs pubibe pravbehr ib smagls bx÷kbeas (praiughias par gfdchas
tbgea`÷khgas, a bdbrkbeghf ib eubvas vf`arbs, hibfs a gaeaghdhbetas) y/a `f
davh`hzfgh÷e ib gaf`hghaebs be gadpbtbeghf.
B` beoaqub ib `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs tfdchèe pastu`f qub `f bstrugturf ib `fs rbibs(vfrhfc`b heibpbeihbetb) ibtbrdhef ea sa`a b` rbsu`tfia ib `f pa`äthgf shea fibdæs b`
thpa ib gfdcha pashc`b. Whkuhbeia f Dfrsm y Wdhtm (3>>>) bs pashc`b frdfr qub b`
krfia y vb`aghifi ib` gfdcha ib pa`äthgfs bstæ gaeihghaefia par `f gfpfghifi ib rbi
pfrf dbihfr a dhehdhzfr `as bobgtas ib tf`bs gfdchas.
Fifd y Lrhbsh (3>>;) prapaebe uef thpa`akäf ib rbibs be cfsb f ias ihdbesha-
ebs. @f ihstrhcugh÷e ib paibr gaesthtuyb `f prhdbrf ihdbesh÷e, y sb hetbrbsf sacrbtaia be sh b` paibr bstæ gaegbetrfia be dfeas ib ue fgtar a gaf`hgh÷e ib fgtarbs
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iadhefetb, a sh bs gadpfrthia betrb fgtarbs a gaf`hghaebs ib fgtarbs. Be gfdcha,
`f sbkueif ihdbesh÷e rbbrb f `f daif`hifi ib hetbrfggh÷e f` hetbrhar ib `fs rbibs
ib pa`äthgfs. @as futarbs prapaebe uef ihsthegh÷e betrb trbs oardfs a pftraebs ib
hetbrfggh÷e: (prbiadheha ib`) gaehgta/`f gadpbtbeghf, (prbiadheha ib`) trubqub/`f
ebkaghfgh÷e, y (prbiadheha ib) `f gaapbrfgh÷e. ‐@f ebkaghfgh÷e gaesthtuyb ue thpahetbrdbiha a fdchvf`betb gfrfgtbrhzfia tfeta par b` gaehgta/gadpbtbeghf gada par
`f gaapbrfgh÷e— (Fifd y Lrhbsh, 3>>;: 679). Ib `f gadchefgh÷e ib bstfs ias ihdbe-
shaebs sb pubibe ibrhvfr sbhs g`fsbs ib rbibs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
Whe bdcfrka, ue feæ`hshs shstbdæthga ib` hdpfgta ib `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs rbquhb-
rb vhegu`fr bstas sbhs thpas ib rbibs gae `as thpas ib gfdchas qub kbebrfe ihobrbetbs
rbsu`tfias. @as futarbs ghtfias sb prapaebe gaebgtfr gfif gftbkaräf ib `f thpa`akäf
gae ue ibtbrdhefia patbeghf` pfrf, y thpa ib, gfdcha ib pa`äthgfs.^ar ue `fia, `as pftraebs ib hetbrfggh÷e sb vhegu`fe gae b` thpa ib gfdcha. Be
shtufghaebs ib gaehgta sb bspbrf qub mfyf gfdchas ræphias (sbrhf`bs) ib pa`äthgfs,
dhbetrfs qub `as gfdchas krfiuf`bs sb ife dæs orbgubetbdbetb be shtufghaebs ib
ebkaghfgh÷e. @fs bstrugturfs ib pa`äthgfs ib gaapbrfgh÷e thbeibe, be gfdcha, f dfe-
tbebr b` stftu qua. ^ar b` atra, sb rb`fghaef b` krfia ib gaegbetrfgh÷e ib paibr gae b`
patbeghf` pfrf b` gfdcha. Be bstb sbethia sb bspbrf qub b` patbeghf` pfrf gfif b` gfd-
cha bs dfyar sh b` paibr sb orfkdbetf. Wh b` paibr sb orfkdbetf, `fs cf`fezfs sb heg`h-
efe dæs oægh`dbetb f ofvar ib `f gaf`hgh÷e ib fgtarbs ibsffetbs. ^ar b` gaetrfrha, sh
b` paibr bstæ gaegbetrfia, b` patbeghf pfrf b` gfdcha bs cfja pubsta qub `as fgtarbs
ibsffetbs ihspaebe ib pagas rbgursas pfrf qubcrfr b` ‐daeapa`ha ib pa`äthgfs—.
Yhpa`akäfs ib rbibs y patbeghf` y thpa ib gfdcha ib pa`äthgfs
Ihstrhcugh÷e ib` paibr Yhpa ib hetbrfggh÷e
Gaehgta Ebkaghfgh÷e Gaapbrfgh÷e
Gaegbetrfgh÷e^atbeghf` daibrfia pfrf
gfdcha ræphia (sbrhf`).
^atbeghf` cfja f daibrf-
ia pfrf gfdcha krfiuf`.
Cfja patbeghf` pfrf b`
gfdcha, dfetbehdhbeta ib`
stftu qua.
Orfkdbetfgh÷eF`ta patbeghf` pfrf gfdcha
ræphia (sbrhf`).
^atbeghf` f`ta f daibrf-
ia pfrf gfdcha krfiuf`.
Cfja patbeghf` pfrf b`
gfdcha, dfetbehdhbeta ib`
stftu qua.
Oubetb: Fifd y Lrhbsh (3>>;: 692).
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`fia, sb heg`uybe `as gadpaebetbs rfghaef`bs b hestrudbetf`bs qub usuf`dbetb sb
uth`hzfe pfrf gfrfgtbrhzfr `f oardu`fgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf, pbra sb hegarparfe
fibdæs ghbrtas gadpaebetbs vf`arfthvas gada `fs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs, `fs hdæ-
kbebs, y as oueifdbetas y bkhthdfghaebs qub bstæe ibtræs ib taif pa`äthgf. ar atra,
sb rbgaeagb bxp`äghtfdbetb ‗rbgakhbeia f gaetrhcugh÷e rbf`hzfif par @awh ‗ qub asihsböas ib fs pa`äthgfs ( pa`hgy ibshke) thbebe gaesbgubeghfs y pa`äthgfs hdpartfetbs.
@fs hibfs a supubstas sacrb `as guf`bs ibsgfesf bstb dfrga fef`äthga pubibe she-
tbthzfrsb ib `f shkuhbetb dfebrf:
h) @f rbf`hifi bs uef gaestruggh÷e saghf . ^frthbeia ib uef gräthgf f `as su-
pubstas ib` pfrfihkdf pashthvhstf, mbkbd÷ehga be b` gfdpa ib `f ghbeghf
saghf` mfstf ef`bs ib `as ?> y prheghphas ib `as ;>, `f tbaräf ib `f gaestrug-
gh÷e saghf` pfrtb ib f frdfgh÷e ib qub fs Ghbeghfs Waghf`bs sae bsbeghf`-dbetb hetbrprbtfthvfs. @f rbf`hifi ea bxhstb, tfdpaga `as prac`bdfs. Yfeta
fqub``f gada bstas sae praiugta ib `f gaestruggh÷e saghf`, b heva`ugrfe
be su hetbrprbtfgh÷e vf`arbs. Be pf`fcrfs ib Hekrfd, Wgmebhibr y ib@bae
(3>>;: 89): ‐@as gaestrugghaehstfs saghf`bs p`fetbfrae qub `as prac`bdfs
saghf`bs ea brfe obe÷dbeas ebutrf`bs u acjbthvas sujbtas f bxfdbe y rbsa-
`ugh÷e hedbihftas. Be gfdcha, `as ”prac`bdfs‘ sb gaeshibrfe hetbrprbtfghaebs
ib gaeihghaebs qub mfe shia sucjbthvfdbetb ibehifs gada prac`bdæthgfs y
qub, gada tf`bs, ibdfeife f`kúe thpa ib fggh÷e pf`hfthvf—.hh) ) @as oardu`fiarbs ib pa`äthgfs orbgubetbdbetb gaestruybe saghf`dbetb
f `fs pac`fghaebs acjbthva ib `fs pa`äthgfs. Bstf gaestruggh÷e ib `fs pac`f-
ghaebs acjbthva pubib sbr be tèrdheas pashthvas a ebkfthvas, ihstrhcuybeia
cbebghas y gfrkfs (a sfeghaebs) gae `f ef`hifi ib pbrpbtufr a gfdchfr
ghbrtfs gaestrugghaebs y ib rbsa`vbr a beorbetfr `as prac`bdfs.
hhh) @fs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs bxhstbetbs ib fs pac`fghaebs acjbthva thbebe
f su vbz uef hdpartfetb heubeghf sacrb as oardu`fiarbs ib pa`äthgfs. @astadfiarbs ib ibghsh÷e beorbetfe paibrasfs prbshaebs qub `as gaeiugbe f
atarkfr cbebghas f `fs pac`fghaebs guyf gaestruggh÷e saghf` bs pashthvf,
y ihstrhcuhr gfsthkas betrb fqub``fs pac`fghaebs sacrb `fs guf`bs pbsf uef
gaestruggh÷e saghf` ebkfthvf. Bstfs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs bstæe berfhzf-
ifs be `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, y gaesthtuybe dbesfjbs ihrhkhias f `fs pa-
c`fghaebs gae b` prap÷shta ib heuhr sacrb sus arhbetfghaebs y pftraebs ib
pfrthghpfgh÷e.
hv) @f rbputfgh÷e, `f hdfkbe y f pashgh÷e saghf` sae ihsthetfs ib fs eaghaebs
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6?;
ib paibr pa`äthga rb`fthvfs f `as rbgursas bgae÷dhgas, saghf`bs y pa`äthgas.
@f rbputfgh÷e sb rbbrb f `f vf`beghf a f `f gaestruggh÷e saghf` pashthvf a
ebkfthvf ib` krupa gada ihkea y dbrbgbiar, be dfyar a dbear dbihif,
y gada gaetrhcuybetb, be dfyar a dbear dbihif, f` chbebstfr kbebrf`. F
ihobrbeghf ib f rbputfgh÷e, b` paibr pa`äthga bs uef ihdbesh÷e qub heihgf b`f`gfegb ib `as rbgursas qub `f pac`fgh÷e a krupa acjbthva pubib davh`hzfr,
tf`bs gada sh bs eudbrasa, uehia, oægh` ib davh`hzfr, fihebrfia, mæch`, chbe
pashghaefia, gbetrfia be tbdfs ib su hetbrès y fgastudcrfia f` vata, f
rb`fghaefrsb gae oueghaefrhas púc`hgas, btgètbrf. F pfrthr ib bstfs ihdbe-
shaebs `f tbaräf ib `f gaestruggh÷e mf oardu`fia `f shkuhbetb thpa`akäf:
Oubetb: Hekrfd, Wgmebhibr y ib@bae (3>>;: 6>3).
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6?=
v) Yaifs `fs pa`äthgfs púchgfs pasbbe ueas b`bdbetas gaesthtuthvas. Wae `as
b`bdbetas oueifdbetf`bs qub ibebe b` ihsböa ib `fs pa`äthgfs b heuybe
sacrb `f pa`äthgf ( pa`hthgs). Eas rbobrhdas bspbgägfdbetb f: 6) `f ibeh-
gh÷e ib` prac`bdf y `as ebs pbrsbkuhias, c) `as cbebghas y gfrkfs f sbr
ihstrhcuhias, g) `f/s pac`fgh÷e/bs acjbthva, i) `fs rbk`fs ib heg`ush÷e/bxg`u-sh÷e, qub ibtbrdhefe quhèe mfgb què, g÷da y gae què rbgursas, b) `as hes-
trudbetas ib pa`äthgfs ihrhkhias f pac`fghaebs y fkbeghfs pfrf qub fgtúbe
ib fgubria f `as `hebfdhbetas ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf, o) `f bstrugturf ib
hdp`bdbetfgh÷e, k) fs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs, m) fs justhgfghaebs a oue-
ifdbetas qub `bkhthdfe `fs pa`äthgfs, h) `as daib`as gfusf`bs sucyfgbetbs.
B` daib`a gfusf` be b` guf` sb fpayf `f tbaräf ib `f gaestruggh÷e saghf`, shkuhbeia
f Hekrfd, Wgmebhibr y ib@bae (3>>;: 8?) bs b` shkuhbetb: ‐@as ihsböas mhst÷rhgas ygaetbdparæebas ib pa`äthgfs thbebe ue bobgta ib frka p`fza be b` sbethia ib qub ( jueta
gae atras ofgtarbs ib` gaetbxta saghf`) hibethgfe pac`fghaebs acjbthva y bs fijuihgfe
rbgadpbesfs y sfeghaebs. @as acjbthvas tfdchèe bstæe fobgtfias par dugmas atras
fspbgtas ib` ihsböa ib pa`äthgfs, gada rbk`fs, mbrrfdhbetfs, oueifdbetas y `f `÷khgf
gfusf` qub bxp`hgf g÷da `as acjbthvas sb rb`fghaefe gae `f ibehgh÷e ib prac`bdfs a
`as ebs supubstas ib `fs pa`äthgfs. @as ihsböas ib `fs pa`äthgfs ife oardf f `f bxpb-
rhbeghf ib `as krupas acjbthva, beväfe dbesfjbs hdp`äghtas sacrb guæe hdpartfetbs sae
sus prac`bdfs pfrf b` Kachbrea y sh su pfrthghpfgh÷e pubib sbr bobgthvf—.
Oubetb: Hekrfd, Wgmebhibr y ib@bae (3>>;: 8?).
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6?8
F pfrthr ib `as supubstas y b` daib`a gfusf` bxp`hghtfias fetbrhardbetb, `f tbaräf
ib `f gaestruggh÷e saghf` mf kbebrfia f` dbeas ghega hdpartfetbs prapashghaebs
bdpärhgfs qub ibcbräfe sbr gaetrfstfifs f pfrthr ib `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib bstuihas gad-
pfrfias a bstuihas ib gfsa.
^rapashgh÷e 6: `as ihsböas ib `fs pa`äthgfs bstrugturfe `fs apartuehifibs y beväfe dbesfjbs
f ihsthetfs pac`fghaebs acjbthva gaestruhifs, fgbrgf ib g÷da sb gadpartf b` Kachbrea y
g÷da f b``as bs kustfräf sbr trftfias par b` Kachbrea. Yfeta fs bstrugturfs ib apartuehifi
gada `as dbesfjbs thbebe ue hdpfgta sacrb `fs arhbetfghaebs pa`äthgfs y `as daib`as ib
pfrthghpfgh÷e ib `fs pac`fghaebs acjbthva.
Wh chbe sb supaeb qub taias `as ghuififeas sae hkuf`bs fetb `f `by, be bspbghf`
be ibdagrfghf, bxhstb uef vfstf `htbrfturf qub paeb ib dfehbsta qub bstas rbghcbe
ihstheta trfta par pfrtb ib` Kachbrea f trfvès ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. ‐@as ihsböas
ib pa`äthgfs heuybe be `f pfrthghpfgh÷e dbihfetb eardfs ib pfrthghpfgh÷e, dbesfjbs
trfesdhthias f `as heihvhiuas, rbgursas gada ihebra y thbdpa, y vbrifibrfs bxpbrhbe-
ghfs gae `fs pa`äthgfs sbkúe sae ``bvfifs f gfca par `as fshstbetbs saghf`bs, `f oubrzf
pa`hghf` a as arkfehsdas kucbrefdbetf`bs. @as dbesfjbs trfesdhtbe quhèe pbrtbebgb,`as hetbrbsbs ib quhèebs sae hdpartfetbs, què thpa ib ‐jubka— bs `f pa`äthgf y sh uea
thbeb ukfr be f dbsf ib ebkaghfgh÷e— (Hekrfd, Wgmebhibr y ib@bae (3>>;: 6>>).
^rapashgh÷e 3: f fijuihgfgh÷e ib cbebghas y gfrkfs ibpbeib ib` ehvb` ib paibr pa`äthga y
ib `f gaestruggh÷e saghf` pashthvf a ebkfthvf.
@as krupas prhvh`bkhfias thbebe f`tas ehvb`bs ib rbgursas ib paibr pa`äthga y
kazfe ib gaestruggh÷e saghf` pashthvf. Gada gaesbgubeghf ib b``as bs f`tfdbetb
pracfc`b qub `as krupas prhvh`bkhfias rbghcfe cbebghas ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, y
qub `fs gfrkfs ‗gufeia bxhstbe‗ sbfe dfs chbe va`uetfrhfs qub ac`hkftarhfs. B` atar-
kfdhbeta ib cbebghas f bstas krupas prhvh`bkhfias kbebrf ue hdpartfetb gfphtf`
pa`äthga pfrf `as oardu`fiarbs ib pa`äthgfs, yf qub quhbebs ea sb cbebghfe tbeiræe
f gaesbethr be cfsb f `as frkudbetas qub sb uth`hzfe pfrf justhgfr `f fiapgh÷e ib ih-
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gmfs pa`äthgfs. @as krupas gaetbeihbetbs, par su pfrtb, thbebe rbgursas pa`äthgas gae-
shibrfc`bs pbra sae gaegbchias ebkfthvfdbetb. Gaeshkuhbetbdbetb, bs sudfdbetb
pracfc`b qub as krupas gaetbeihbetbs rbghcfe cbebghas par su paibr pa`äthga, pbra
qub bstas cbebghas sbfe gaeibeghf`bs a ihoägh`bs ib hibethgfr. Gufeia rbghcbe
gfrkfs, bstfs sub`be sbr dæs chbe rbt÷rhgfs a ib ihoägh` hdp`bdbetfgh÷e (ibchia f su paibr pa`äthga pubibe ibsffr`fs oægh`dbetb iurfetb `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e a trfvès ib
uef fggh÷e juihghf`). @as ibpbeihbetbs, be gfdcha, kazfe ib uef gaestruggh÷e saghf`
pashthvf pbra `f of`tf ib paibr pa`äthga rbiugb fcruptfdbetb su gfpfghifi pfrf rbghchr
cbebghas. @as krupas ibpbeihbetbs sub`be sbr vhstas gada pbrsaefs ‐cubefs—, pbra
gfrbgbe ib` paibr pa`äthga ebgbsfrha pfrf bxhkhr dæs ib dfebrf bobgthvf. Ohef`dbe-
tb, `as ibsvhfias gfrbgbe tfeta ib paibr pa`äthga gada ib gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs
pashthvfs y thbeibe f rbghchr ue pargbetfjb ibspraparghaefia ib gfrkfs y sfeghaebs.
^rapashgh÷e 7: `as b`bdbetas ib` ihsböa ib `fs pa`äthgfs ihbrbe ib fgubria gae `f
gaestruggh÷e saghf` y b` paibr ib `f pac`fgh÷e acjbthva.
Wbkúe bstf prapashgh÷e, b` daia be qub b` Kachbrea trftf f `fs pac`fghaebs ac- jbthva iurfetb `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs ihbrb gaeshibrfc`bdbetb sbkúe b`
paibr y f gaestruggh÷e saghf` ib `as krupas acjbthva. Fshdhsda, `fs hevbsthkfghaebs
rbf`hzfifs be b` dfrga ib `f tbaräf ib `f gaestruggh÷e saghf` thbeibe f rbspf`ifr `f
hibf ib qub `as rfzaefdhbetas berfhzfias be `as dbesfjbs qub bstæe be b` ihsböa
ib pa`äthgfs rb`fghaefe `f b`bggh÷e ib mbrrfdhbetfs gae `f gaestruggh÷e saghf` ib `f
pac`fgh÷e acjbthva. ^frf f`kueas futarbs, `f bstrbgmf rb`fgh÷e ib `fs mbrrfdhbetfs ib
`fs pa`äthgfs gae as oueifdbetas qub sb gbetrfe be gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs pashthvfs
y ebkfthvfs thbeb hdp`hgfeghfs sacrb `f bobgthvhifi ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
^rapashgh÷e 9: `as b`fcarfiarbs ib `fs pa`äthgfs fyuife f grbfr gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs ib
pac`fghaebs acjbthva gae fetb`fgh÷e f su ibehgh÷e a fpracfgh÷e púc`hgf.
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Bstf prapashgh÷e sukhbrb qub `as ihsböas ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sb hesthtu-
ghaef`hzfe gae b` thbdpa< y be `f dbihif be qub `fs gaesbgubeghfs ib `fs pa`ä-
thgfs ‐rbtraf`hdbetfe— pfrf ibsf`betfr `f pfrthghpfgh÷e pa`äthgf ib krupas gae
gaestrugghaebs ebkfthvfs y f`betfr `f pfrthghpfgh÷e ib krupas gae gaestruggha-
ebs pashthvfs, `as ihsböas rboubrzfe `fs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs, `fs rb`fghaebs ib paibr prbvf`bghbetbs y `fs gu`turfs hesthtughaef`bs. @as `äibrbs b`bgtas rbspaeibe
f `fs pa`äthgfs ib` dhsda daia qub atras fgtarbs pa`äthgas, rboarzfeia tfdchèe
`fs hdækbebs yf bxhstbetbs.
^rapashgh÷e 2: `fs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs pubibe gfdchfr y `as ihsböas ib `fs pa`äthgfs
sae uef hdpartfetb (fuequb ea úehgf) oubrzf ib` gfdcha. Ib mbgma, `f sbdh``f ib` gfdcha
pubib begaetrfrsb be f`kuefs ghrguestfeghfs ea prbvhstfs a ea fethghpfifs ib ihsböas pa`äthgas prbvhas.
Wgmebhibr b Hekrfd (688;) frkudbetfe qub `f ghbeghf thbeb dfyar heubeghf
gufeia `fs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs ib `as krupas ea sb gubsthaefe y `f pa`äthgf pú-
c`hgf ea thbeb ue púc`hga acjbthva acvha. Be tf`bs gfsas `as ghbetägas pubibe mfcbr
ibehia `f gubsth÷e be tèrdheas tègehgas qub sa`a heg`uybe uef gaestruggh÷e duyebutrf` ib as krupas acjbthva. Fshdhsda, f futarhifi ghbetägf pubib sbr grughf` be
`as gfsas be `as qub sb rbf`hzfe hetbetas pfrf gfdchfr `f gaestruggh÷e ib ue krupa a
gufeia sb bstæe beorbetfeia gaestrugghaebs apubstfs.
Wh chbe mfy dugmfs heubeghfs qub pravhbebe ib oubrf ib `fs pa`äthgfs qub da-
thvfe gfdchas be `fs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs, bstas gfdchas pubibe praiughrsb be
f`kuefs ghrguestfeghfs gada gaesbgubeghf ib `as ihsböas ib pa`äthgfs. Be bobgta, `fs
pa`äthgfs pubibe pravbbr b` beoaqub, `as rbgursas, `fs frbefs y `f davh`hzfgh÷e ib
fgtarbs pa`äthgas qub sae bsbeghf`bs pfrf b` gfdcha ib `fs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs.
F pbsfr ib `a qub sukhbrb bstf prapashgh÷e rbspbgta f` gfdcha ib pa`äthgfs (y ib
`fs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs), uef ib `fs gräthgfs qub orbgubetbdbetb sb `b mf rbf-
`hzfia f bstb beoaqub rbshib be qub thbeib f bxp`hgfr dbjar `f gaetheuhifi qub b`
gfdcha. B``a sb ibcb f qub sb fsudb qub `fs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs thbeibe f sbr
paga uhifs, bs ibghr, dæs chbe bstfc`bs f `a `frka ib` thbdpa. ^bra `f tbaräf ib `f
gaestruggh÷e saghf` ea gadpfrtb bsb supubsta. ‐Ib mbgma, dugma ib` ihefdhsda
ib `f oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs bstæ be pbrsufihr f atras ib qub uef gaestruggh÷e ibkrupas acjbthva be pfrthgu`fr, y uef oardf bspbghf` ib bedfrgfr b` tbdf dæs fdp`ha
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bs `f ”garrbgtf‘ y, par `a tfeta, ibtbrdhefias b`bdbetas ib` ihsböa ib pa`äthgfs sae
`f b`bggh÷e `÷khgf. (…) @fs gaestrugghaebs saghf`bs sb ‐grbfe—, ‐uth`hzfe— y ‐dfeh-
pu`fe— pfrf `f praiuggh÷e ib pa`äthgfs— (Hekrfd, Wgmebhibr y ib@bae, 3>>;: 668).
Fue fsä, uea ib `as dfyarbs ibsfoäas qub beorbetf `f tbaräf ib gaestruggh÷e saghf`
bs `f hibethgfgh÷e y gadprbesh÷e ib `as dbgfehsdas gfusf`bs qub sucyfgbe f `fs
trfeshghaebs ib ue `ukfr f atra ib `f thpa`akäf (ib@bae 3>>2).
7.9. B` dfrga ib `fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs
B` dfrga ib `fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs ( Fivagfgy Gaf`hthae Orfdbwarl , be fib`fetb
FGO) surkb f ef`bs ib `as föas => gada rbspubstf f `fs gräthgfs ibsphfififs qub Wfcf-
thbr y Jbelhes-Wdhtm (68==) b oardu`fe f` daib`a ib fs btfpfs ib` pragbsa ib pa`äthgfs.
Whe bdcfrka, ibsib b` dadbeta ib su oardu`fgh÷e arhkhef` mf suorhia f`kuefs daih-gfghaebs hdpartfetbs (Wfcfthbr y Jbelhes-Wdhtm, 6887, 6888< Wfcfthbr y [bhc`b, 3>>;).
B` dfrga ib `fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs fsudb qub b` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs bs
tfe gadp`bja qub `as pfrthghpfetbs ibcbe bspbghf`hzfrsb sh ibsbfe tbebr f`kuef pash-
ch`hifi ib heuhr be b` pragbsa ib oardu`fgh÷e b hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs pú-
c`hgfs. Bstf bspbghf`hzfgh÷e sb ibsfrra``f f` hetbrhar ib gfif uea ib `as sucshstbdfs
ib pa`äthgfs, qub bstæe gaeoardfias par fgtarbs qub cusgfe pfrthghpfr y da`ibfr `f
ibehgh÷e ib `as prac`bdfs, heuhr be b` ibcftb púc`hga, y gaeihghaefr `f tadf ibibghshaebs (fiapgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs).
F ihobrbeghf ib` beoaqub ib rbibs, qub thbeib f fsudhr qub sae dú`thp`bs y vfrhf-
ias `as fgtarbs qub pfrthghpfe ib `fs rbibs ib pa`äthgfs, b` dfrga ib `fs gaf`hghaebs
pradatarfs gaesthtuyb uef tbaräf dæs pfrshdaehasf. Be bobgta, sbkúe `as futarbs
(Wfcfthbr y Jbelhes-Wdhtm, 6887, 6888) be gfif sucshstbdf ib pa`äthgfs `as pfrth-
ghpfetbs bstæe fkrbkfias be uef a dæs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs, gfif uef ib b``fs
gaeoardfif par hevbsthkfiarbs, ghbetägas, pbrhaihstfs, fidhehstrfiarbs púc`hgas,
`bkhs`fiarbs, oueghaefrhas pa`äthgas, rbprbsbetfetbs ib `as krupas ib hetbrès, `äibrbsib arkfehzfghaebs saghf`bs, betrb atras.
^frf b` dfrga ib fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs b` gadpartfdhbeta ib as pfrthghpfe-
tbs f` hetbrhar ib ue sucshstbdf ib pa`äthgf bstæ fobgtfia par ias gaejuetas ib ofgtarbs
bxtbreas: f) ofgtarbs rb`fthvfdbetb bstfc`bs: gada as ftrhcutas ib` ærbf ib prac`bdf,
`f ihstrhcugh÷e ib `as rbgursas efturf`bs, `f bstrugturf saghf` y `as vf`arbs gu`turf`bs
oueifdbetf`bs ib `f saghbifi, y `f bstrugturf gaesthtughaef` b hesthtughaef` cæshgf
(`fs rbk`fs ib jubka)< c) bvbetas bxtbreas, dæs iheædhgas: gada `as gfdchas be `fshtufgh÷e saghabgae÷dhgf, `as gfdchas be `f apheh÷e púc`hgf, `fs daihgfghaebs be
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
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`f gaf`hgh÷e ib kachbrea, y `fs ibghshaebs pa`äthgfs b hdpfgtas pravbehbetbs ib atras
sucshstbdfs ib pa`äthgfs. @as prhdbras gaesthtuybe ofgtarbs qub duy agfshaef`dbe-
tb gfdchfe be pbrhaias gartas ib thbdpa, pbra qub ibebe `fs rbstrhgghaebs y rbgur -
sas cfja `as guf`bs `as pfrthghpfetbs apbrfe. @as sbkueias, be gfdcha, sae ofgtarbs
gräthgas qub pubibe hdpu`sfr b` gfdcha ib `fs pa`äthgfs.Whe bdcfrka, gae b` prap÷shta ib paibr bxp`hgfr dbjar `f heubeghf gfusf` ib
bstas ofgtarbs sacrb b` sucshstbdf ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf, Wfcfthbr y [bhc`b (3>>;) he-
traiugbe ias hdpartfetbs daihgfghaebs f` dfrga ib `fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs.
^ar ue `fia, hetraiugb uef eubvf gftbkaräf ib vfrhfc`bs qub ibeadhef ‐bstrugturfs
ib apartuehifi ib gaf`hgh÷e— pfrf qub dbihbe betrb `as pfrædbtras bstfc`bs ib` y
b` sucshstbdf ib pa`äthgf púc`hgf. Bstfs vfrhfc`bs sb bstrugturfe be ias gaejuetas
ib vfrhfc`bs chbe ihobrbeghfias: f) krfia ib gaesbesa rbqubrhia pfrf ue gfdchahdpartfetb be `fs pa`äthgfs. Be kbebrf`, gufeta dæs f`ta bs b` gaesbesa rbqubrhia,
dfyarbs hegbethvas thbebe `fs gaf`hghaebs pfrf sbr heg`ushvfs (be `ukfr ib bxg`ush-
vfs), pfrf pragurfr b` gadpradhsa y gadpfrthr heoardfgh÷e gae `as apashtarbs< y c)
fpbrturf ib` shstbdf pa`äthga, qub bs uef ouegh÷e ib ias vfrhfc`bs: (6) `f gfethifi ib
bsgbefrhas pfrf `f tadf ib ibghshaebs par `fs qub guf`quhbr prapubstf ib pa`äthgfs
hdpartfetb ibcb pfsfr, y (3) `f fggbshch`hifi ib gfif bsgbefrha.
Ref sbkueif daihgfgh÷e hdpartfetb qub mf shia hetraiughif pfrf bxp`hgfr `as
ihsthetas krfias ib heghibeghf qub thbebe `as pfrthghpfetbs ib `fs gaf`hghaebs sacrbb` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs bs `f hibethgfgh÷e ib `as rbgursas qub `fs gaf`h-
ghaebs pubibe davh`hzfr. Wbkúe `as futarbs (Wfcfthbr y [bhc`b, 3>>;: 3>6-3>7), ‐`as
rbgursas sae:
h) Futarhifi `bkf` oardf` pfrf tadfr ibghshaebs sacrb pa`äthgfs. B` dfrga
ib `fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs gaeshibrf f `as fgtarbs be pashghaebs ib fu-
tarhifi `bkf` gada dhbdcras patbeghf`bs ib gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs. Bstaheg`uyb f dugmas oueghaefrhas ib arkfehsdas, `bkhs`fiarbs y f`kueas jub-
gbs. Gufeia bsa sugbib, bs ue rbgursa hdpartfetb pfrf `f gaf`hgh÷e. Ref
ib `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs dæs hdpartfetbs ib uef gaf`hgh÷e iadhefetb bs qub
thbeb dæs dhbdcras be pashghaebs ib futarhifi oardf` qub `fs gaf`hghaebs
dhearhtfrhfs. @fs bstrftbkhfs dæs hdpartfetbs pfrf `fs gaf`hghaebs heg`uybe
ga`agfr f as f`hfias be pashghaebs ib futarhifi bkf` dbihfetb b`bgghaebs a
ibshkefghaebs pa`äthgfs, fsä gada `fezfr gfdpföfs ib `accy pfrf pbrsufihr
f oueghaefrhas gae futarhifi `bkf`.
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hh) Apheh÷e púc`hgf. @fs begubstfs ib apheh÷e qub dubstrfe su fpaya f `fs
pashghaebs ib pa`äthgfs ib uef gaf`hgh÷e sae ue rbgursa hdpartfetb pfrf `as
pfrthghpfetbs. (…) Ref bstrftbkhf g`æshgf ib `fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs bs
ibihgfr dugma thbdpa f trftfr ib actbebr b` fpaya ib` púc`hga.
h) Hhheoardfgh÷e. @f heoardfgh÷e rb`fthvf f `f krfvbifi y f `fs gfusfs ib ue prac`bdf, y f `as gastas y cbebghas ib `fs f`tbrefthvfs ib pa`äthgfs bs ue
rbgursa hdpartfetb pfrf uef gaf`hgh÷e. (…) Betrb `as usas bstrftèkhgas ib
`f heoardfgh÷e bstæe b` rboarzfr `f dbdcrbsäf ib `f gaf`hgh÷e, ibcfthr be
gaetrf ib `as puetas ib vhstf pa`äthgas ib ue fivbrsfrha, gaevbegbr f `as
kacbrefetbs qub tadfe ibghshaebs qub fpaybe `fs prapubstfs praphfs, b
heuhr be `f apheh÷e púc`hgf. (…) Bstf bs uef ib `fs rfzaebs par `fs guf`bs
b` dfrga rbsf`tf b` ra` ib `as hevbsthkfiarbs ibetra ib `fs gaf`hghaebs.hv) Krupas davh`hzfc`bs. @fs è`htbs pa`äthgfs gae orbgubeghf uth`hzfe dhbd-
cras ib` púc`hga ftbeta qub gadpfrtbe sus grbbeghfs pfrf heva`ugrfr`as be
vfrhfs fgthvhifibs pa`äthgfs, gada dfehobstfghaebs púc`hgfs, gfdpföfs
b`bgtarf`bs y gfdpföfs ib rbgfuifgh÷e ib oaeias. (…)
v) Sbgursas efeghbras. B` ihebra pubib uth`hzfrsb pfrf fiquhrhr atras rb-
gursas. Ref gaf`hgh÷e gae fdp`has rbgursas efeghbras pubib pravbbr `as
oaeias pfrf `f hevbsthkfgh÷e y arkfehzfr krupas ib bxpbrtas (tmhel tfels)
pfrf praiughr heoardfgh÷e, efeghfr gfeihiftas chbe ihspubstas kfefeia
fsä fggbsa hetbrea f `bkhs`fiarbs y pa`äthgas ibshkefias, `fezfr gfdpföfs
dbihæthgfs pfrf actbebr b` fpaya ib` púc`hga y puc`hghtfr sus pashghaebs
pa`äthgfs f e ib oartf`bgbr `f gfethifi ib fgthvhstfs davh`hzfc`bs.
vh) @hibrfzka mæch`. @fs puc`hgfghaebs sacrb bdprbeibiarbs ib pa`äthgfs ib-
dubstrfe g÷da `äibrbs mæch`bs pubibe grbfr uef vhsh÷e ftrfgthvf pfrf uef
gaf`hgh÷e, uth`hzfr `as rbgursas be oardf bstrftèkhgf y bghbetb y ftrfbr eub-
vas rbgursas pfrf `f gaf`hgh÷e (…)—.
^ar su pfrtb, b` daib`a ib heihvhiua ib` guf` pfrtb b` beoaqub ib `fs gaf`hghaebs
pradatarfs ibrhvf ib `f pshga akäf saghf` (y ea ib `f bgaeadäf). Gaesbgubetbdbetb,
sb fsudb ‗f ihobrbeghf ib` daib`a ib heihvhiua dfxhdhzfiar prapha ib `f tbaräf ib
b`bggh÷e rfghaef`‗ qub tfdchèe sae hdpartfetbs `fs grbbeghfs eardfthvfs, ea ibsgfr-
tfeia f pashc`b bxhstbeghf ib gadpartfdhbetas f`truhstfs. Ib bstb daia, sb rbgaeagbe
ias shstbdfs ib rfzaefdhbeta eardfthva: par ue `fia, uef `÷khgf ib `a fpraphfia, qub
supaeb b` sbkuhdhbeta y gudp`hdhbeta ib `fs rbk`fs< y par atra, uef `÷khgf ib `fs gae-
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sbgubeghfs, qub hdp`hgf `f prbsbeghf ib gadpartfdhbetas bkaästfs y dfxhdhzfiarbs.
B` dfrga ib `fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs ibstfgf bspbghf`dbetb `f ‐tbeibeghf ib `as
fgtarbs f rb`fghaefrsb gae b` dueia f trfvès ib ue gaejueta ib `tras ib pbrgbpgh÷e
gadpubstas par grbbeghfs prbbxhstbetbs qub sae ihoägh`bs ib daihgfr— (Wfcfthbr y
[bhc`b, 3>>;: 689). @as pfrthghpfetbs bspbghf`hzfias be ue ærbf ib pa`äthgf púc`hgfgadpfrtbe ue gaejueta ib grbbeghfs eardfthvfs y ib daib`as gfusf`bs, y cusgfe pra-
davbr sus hetbrbsbs f trfvès ib `f gaarihefgh÷e be b` thbdpa ib sus fgghaebs.
Gada gaesbgubeghf ib b``a bs pracfc`b qub `as fgtarbs hetbkrfetbs ib ihobrbetbs
gaf`hghaebs pbrghcfe `f dhsdf heoardfgh÷e ib daias duy ihobrbetbs. Bsta f su vbz
fudbetf `f hetbeshifi ib `f rb`fgh÷e ib `as dhbdcras f` hetbrhar ib gfif gaf`hgh÷e f`
thbdpa qub hetbeshgf b` gaehgta betrb `fs gaf`hghaebs be gadpbtbeghf. @as `tras
ib pbrgbpgh÷e tfdchèe thbeibe f b`hdhefr `f heoardfgh÷e ihsaefetb y f rbfrdfrfqub``f qub ea ihsgrbpf gae b` shstbdf ib grbbeghfs, rboarzfeia b` shstbdf ib grbbe-
ghfs y mfghbeia cfstfetb ihoägh` b` gfdcha.
Wbkúe `as futarbs (Wfcfthbr y Jbelhes-Wdhtm, 6888< Wfcfthbr y [bhc`b, 3>>;) b`
shstbdf ib grbbeghfs sb bstrugturf be trbs ehvb`bs, vhegu`fias betrb sä ib oardf jb-
rærquhgf. Be b` ehvb` dæs fdp`ha sb begubetrfe `fs grbbeghfs oueifdbetf`bs (ibbp
garb cb`hbos), qub fcfrgfe `f dfyaräf ib `as sucshstbdfs ib pa`äthgfs. ‐@fs grbbeghfs
oueifdbetf`bs heg`uybe supubstas duy kbebrf`bs eardfthvas y aeta`÷khgas sacrb `f
efturf`bzf mudfef, `f prharhifi rb`fthvf ib vf`arbs oueifdbetf`bs gada `f `hcbrtfiy `f hkuf`ifi, `f prharhifi rb`fthvf ib` chbebstfr ib ihobrbetbs krupas, b` pfpb` fib-
gufia ib` Kachbrea gaetrf `as dbrgfias be kbebrf`, y sacrb quhbebs ibcbe pfrthgh-
pfr be `f tadf ib ibghshaebs kucbrefdbetf`bs— (Wfcfthbr y [bhc`b, 3>>;: 689). @fs
grbbeghfs oueifdbetf`bs sae, be krfe dbihif, b` praiugta ib `f saghf`hzfgh÷e be `f
heofeghf y par `a tfeta, duy ihoägh`bs ib gfdchfr.
Be b` shkuhbetb ehvb` sb begubetrfe `fs grbbeghfs sacrb `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ( pa-
`hgy garb cb`hbos), bs ibghr, as gadpradhsas cæshgas qub hdp`hgfe prharhifibs vf`arf-thvfs rb`fthvfs f fs pa`äthgfs, b` chbebstfr ib quhèe gubetf, f futarhifi rb`fthvf ib as
kachbreas y as dbrgfias, b` pfpb` fibgufia ib` púc`hga be kbebrf`, as oueghaefrhas
b`bgtas, `as oueghaefrhas púc`hgas, `as pbrhtas, y `f krfvbifi rb`fthvf y `fs gfusfs ib
`as prac`bdfs ib pa`äthgfs be b` sucshstbdf. B` supubsta kbebrf` ib` qub sb pfrtb bs
qub `as pfrthghpfetbs ib `f gaf`hgh÷e iadhefetb thbebe gaeaghdhbeta sacrb `fs rb`f-
ghaebs ibetra ib su sucshstbdf ib pa`äthgfs, y qub pubibe bstfr ihspubstas f fp`hgfr
ghbrtfs grbbeghfs oueifdbetf`bs be b` gfdpa ib `fs grbbeghfs sacrb pa`äthgfs. Whe
bdcfrka, ea bxhstb shbdprb uef garrbspaeibeghf betrb fdcas ehvb`bs ib` shstbdf ibgrbbeghfs. Gada bstfs grbbeghfs thbebe ue f`gfegb qub fcfrgf taia b` sucshstbdf ib
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
6;?
pa`äthgf púc`hgf y trftfe gae b`bgghaebs ib pa`äthgfs oueifdbetf`bs, sae tfdchèe duy
ihoägh`bs ib gfdchfr.
Be b` tbrgbr ehvb` sb begubetrfe `fs grbbeghfs hestrudbetf`bs (sbgaeifry cb`hbos).
Bstfs grbbeghfs thbebe rb`fthvfdbetb paga f`gfegb (ea fcfrgfe taia b` sucshstbdf),
y rbbrbe f `f krfvbifi y gfusfs ib `as prac`bdfs be ue bsgbefrha bspbgäga, f
`fs pfutfs ib `f pfrthghpfgh÷e púc`hgf ibetra ib uef `by bspbgägf, par dbeghaefr
f`kueas b`bdbetas. Ifia qub `fs grbbeghfs hestrudbetf`bs thbebe ue f`gfegb dbear
sacrb `fs pa`äthgfs, gfdchfr`fs rbquhbrb dbeas prubcfs y dbeas fgubrias betrb `as
fgtarbs ib ue sucshstbdf y, par `a tfeta, ibcbräf rbsu`tfr cfstfetb dæs fggbshc`b.
B` dfrga ib `fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs gaesthtuyb she iuif ue beoaqub gbetrfia
be `f bxp`hgfgh÷e ib` gfdcha (a ea) ib `as shstbdfs ib grbbeghfs y ib `fs pa`äthgfs
ibetra ib ue sucshstbdf. @as prhdbras ibsfrra``as ib bstb dfpf tb÷rhga-gaegbptuf`hibethgfcfe ias gfdheas pfrf b` gfdcha ib grbbeghfs y ib pa`äthgfs: (6) b` fprbeih-
zfjb arhbetfia f `fs pa`äthgfs y (3) `fs pbrturcfghaebs bxtbrefs.
Fprbeihzfjb arhbetfia f fs pa äthgfs: sb ibeb b` fprbeihzfjb arhbetfia f `fs pa-
`äthgfs gada ‐f`tbrfghaebs rb`fthvfdbetb pbriurfc`bs ib` pbesfdhbeta a hetbeghaebs
ib gadpartfdhbeta qub rbsu`tfe ib `f bxpbrhbeghf y/a heoardfgh÷e eubvf y qub cus-
gfe b` `akra a `f rbvhsh÷e ib `as acjbthvas ib `fs pa`äthgfs— (Wfcfthbr y Jbelhes-Wdhtm
6888: 637). Bstb gfdcha be kbebrf` apbrf f ehvb` ib fs grbbeghfs sbgueifrhfs (tbrgbr
ehvb` ib `fs grbbeghfs).^brturcfghaebs a smagls bxtbreas: uef gaeihgh÷e ebgbsfrhf fuequb ea sughbetb
pfrf ue gfdcha hdpartfetb ib pa`äthgfs ibetra ib ue sucshstbdf sae `fs pbrturcf-
ghaebs bxtbrefs f` sucshstbdf ib pa`äthgfs. Bstfs heg`uybe gfdchas be `fs gaeihgha-
ebs saghabgae÷dhgfs, gfdchas ib rèkhdbe, rbpbrgushaebs ib atras sucshstbdfs, a
ibsfstrbs. Bstas smagls bxtbreas pubibe gfdchfr fkbeifs, daihgfr `f ftbegh÷e ib
`f apheh÷e púc`hgf y ftrfbr `f ftbegh÷e ib `as kacbrefetbs qub sb agupfe ib tadfr
ibghshaebs. ^bra b` bobgta dæs hdpartfetb gaeshstb be `f rbihstrhcugh÷e ib rbgursas a`f fpbrturf y ghbrrb ib bsgbefrhas ibetra ib ue sucshstbdf ib pa`äthgfs, `a qub pub-
ibe gaeiughr f` rbdp`fza ib `f gaf`hgh÷e iadhefetb par uef gaf`hgh÷e dhearhtfrhf
(Wfcfthbr y Jbelhes-Wdhtm, 6887). @as smagls bxtbreas pairäfe tfdchèe praiughr
daihgfghaebs be `as gadpaebetbs ib `fs grbbeghfs sacrb `fs pa`äthgfs ib uef gaf`h-
gh÷e pradatarf iadhefetb.
Be ue trfcfja pastbrhar, she bdcfrka, Wfcfthbr y [bhc`b (3>>;) mfe rbgaeaghia f
bxhstbeghf ib ias eubvas pftraebs ib gfdcha ib pa`äthgfs: (6) smagls hetbreas y (3)
fgubrias ebkaghfias.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6;;
Wmagls hetbreas: èstas rbihstrhcuybe `as rbgursas grughf`bs ib `f pa`äthgf, gae-
ghtfeia `f ftbegh÷e púc`hgf be ue prac`bdf y kbebrfeia `f pashch`hifi ib ftrfbr a
rbihstrhcuhr eubvas rbgursas grughf`bs (fpaya púc`hga, fpaya efeghbra, btg.) Bstas
gfdchas be `f ihstrhcugh÷e ib `as rbgursas pubib heg`hefr `f bstrugturf ib paibr ib`
sucshstbdf ib pa`äthgfs ibsib uef gaf`hgh÷e pradatarf iadhefetb y uef a dæs gaf-`hghaebs dhearhtfrhfs f ias a dæs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs gadpbththvfs a, be ue gfd-
cha tatf`, f uef gaf`hgh÷e pradatarf iadhefetb ihobrbetb gae dæs ib uef gaf`hgh÷e
pradatarf dhearhtfrhf ihobrbetb. Fshdhsda, bstas smagls gaerdfe `fs grbbeghfs
sacrb `fs pa`äthgfs be `fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs dhearhtfrhfs y fudbetfe `f iuif
ibetra ib `f gaf`hgh÷e iadhefetb, gufeia paebe ib dfehbsta of``fs hdpartfetbs ib
`fs pa`äthgfs y ib `as gadpartfdhbetas ib `f gaf`hgh÷e pradatarf iadhefetb.
Fgubrias ebkaghfias: par ghbrta, bxhstbe shtufghaebs be `fs qub `fs gaf`hghaebsqub mfe bstfia beorbetfifs iurfetb iègfifs ``bkfe f ue fgubria ebkaghfia qub
hdp`hgf ue gfdcha sustfeghf` ib` stftu qua. Bs par b``a qub b` dfrga ib `fs gaf`hgha-
ebs pradatarfs ibcb paibr hibethgfr `fs gaeihghaebs be `fs guf`bs ’be fusbeghf
ib uef pbrturcfgh÷e bxtbref a hetbref hdpartfetb’ `as fgubrias qub heva`ugrfe
gfdchas sacrb pa`äthgfs sae pashc`bs. @as futarbs hibethgfe fquä eubvb o÷rdu`fs
(Wfcfthbr y [bhc`b, 3>>;: 3>?-3>;).
F pfrthr ib `a bxpubsta bs pashc`b rbgaestruhr, betaegbs, b` dfpf gaegbptuf` y b`
daib`a gfusf` qub prapaebe as ibobesarbs ib` daib`a ib fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
6;=
Oubetb: Wfcfthbr y [bhc`b(3>>;: 3>3)
9. BE SBWRDBE
Ea sb mf prbtbeihia fquä rbf`hzfr ue rb`bvfdhbeta bxmfusthva ib `as dfrgas, be-
oaqub y tbaräfs ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. B` prap÷shta, be gfdcha, mf shia prbsbetfr
ib dfebrf crbvb pbra shstbdæthgf fqub``as dfrgas y tbaräfs qub gaeshibrfdas dæs
pradbtbiarbs. Betrb bstfs sb ibstfgfe `f pbrspbgthvf hesthtughaef`, b` beoaqub ib
rbibs ib pa`äthgfs, `f tbaräf ib `f gaestruggh÷e saghf`, y b` dfrga ib `fs gaf`hghaebs
pradatarfs. Be gfif uea ib `as beoaqubs trfcfjfias sb mf prbtbeihia ofdh`hfrhzfr
f` `bgtar gae b` ibsfrra``a y bva`ugh÷e ib` dfrga gaegbptuf`, `as supubstas sacrb `asqub sb fshbetf gfif tbaräf, y `as daib`as gfusf`bs hdp`äghtas be gfif uef ib b``fs.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6;8
Fshdhsda, y pfrf ef`hzfr, b` feæ`hshs mf fcarifia `f oardf f trfvès ib `f guf` gfif
beoaqub a tbaräf bxp`hgf b` gfdcha ib `fs pa`äthgfs ( pa`hgy gmfekb).
Sbobrbeghfs Fifd, W`hlb y Mfespbtbr Lrhbsh, ‐Ymb Ebtwarl Fpprafgm—, be ^fu` Wfcfthbr
(Bi.) Ymbarhbs ao tmb ^a`hgy ^ragbss, Cau`ibr (Ga.): [bstvhbw ^rbss, 3>>;.
F`bdæe, Biufria y Kbarkb Ysbcb`hs, ‐^aibrbs ib Fkbeif Gaeihghaef`bs be Fdè-rhgf @fthef—, be ^AWYIftf, Sbvhstf ib Sbbxh÷e y Feæ`hshs a`äthga, 63: ;;-6>?, 3>>;.
Feibrsae, Jfdbs, ^uc`hg ^a`hgy Dflhek, Ebw Xarl, Ebw Ma`t, Shebmfrt y [hestae, 68;2.
Cfrifgm, Bukbeb, Ymb Hdp`bdbetfthae Kfdb, Gfdcrhikb, Dfss., Ymb DHY ^rbss, 68=>.
Crbwbr, Kfrry, ‐Ymb ^a`hgy Wghbegbs Bdbrkb: Ya Eurturb fei Wtrugturb f Ihsgh- p`heb—, ^a`hgy Wghbegbs, 2 (7): 378-399, 68;9.
Crbwbr, Kfrry y ^btbr Ib@bae, Ymb Oaueifthaes ao ^a`hgy Fef`yshs. Daetbrrby,Craals/Ga`b, 68=7.
Gfdau, Fetaeha, ‐@as gaesbjbras ib` präeghpb. Wfcbr tègehga y pa`äthgf be `as pragbsas ib rboardf bgae÷dhgf be Fdèrhgf @fthef—, Sbvhstf Eubvf Waghbifi ,623: 29-?;, 688;.
Ifkubrrb, Feeb, ‐^a`hgy Ebtwarls he Bek`fei fei Orfegb: tmb Gfsb ao Gmh`i Gfrb^a`hgy 68=>-68=8—, Jauref` ao Burapbfe ^uc`hg ^a`hgy, ; (3): 399-3?>, 3>>>.
Ga`bdfe, [h``hfd I., Krfgb I. Wlakstfi y Dhgmfb` D. Ftlhesae, ‐^frfihkdWmhots fei ^a`hgy Ebtwarls: Gudu`fthvb Gmfekb he Fkrhgu`turb—, Jauref` ao
^uc`hg ^a`hgy, 6? (7): 3;7-7>6 688;.ib@bae, ^btbr, ‐Sbvhbw ao Ibsbrvhek fei Betht`bi ^uc`hg ^a`hgy—, ^uc`hg Fidh-
ehstrfthae Sbvhbw, ?2 (2): ?7=-?9>, 3>>2.
ib@bae, ^btbr, ‐Ref rbvhsh÷e ib` pragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs: ib @fsswb`` f Wfcf-thbr—, Kbsth÷e y pa`äthgf púc`hgf, _H (6): 2-6;, 688;.
ib@bae, ^btbr, Fivhgb fei Gaesbet: Ymb Ibvb`apdbet ao tmb ^a`hgy Wghbegbs, Ebw Xarl: Ymb Sussb`` Wfkb Oaueifthae, 68==.
Iryzbl, J., Ihsgurshvb Ibdagrfgy: ^a`ht hgs, ^a`hgy fei ^a`ht hgf` Wghbegb, EbwXarl: Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 688>.
B`darb, Sacbrt, ‐Oarwfri fei Cfglwfri Dfpphek: Sbvbrshc`b @akhg he tmb Fef`y-shs ao ^uc`hg ^a`hgy—, Be L. Mfeo y Y. Yaaebe (Bis.) ^a`hgy Hdp`bdbetfthae he
Obibrf` fei Rehtfry Wystbds, Castae, Dfrtheus Ehjmaoo ^uc`hsmbrs, 68=2.
B`darb, Sacbrt, ‐Cfglwfri Dfpphek: Hdp`bdbetfthae Sbsbfrgm fei ^a`hgy Ib-ghshae—, ^a`hthgf` Wghbegb Vufrtbr`y, 89 (9): ?>6-?>8, 68=>.
Bstbvbz, F`bjfeira y Wusfef Bspbr, ‐Sbvhshtfeia b` daib`a sbgubeghf` ib pa`äth-gfs púc`hgfs—, Sbvhstf ib` Hesthtuta (Hesthtuta ib `f FOH^), 2, 3>>8.
Ohsgmbr, Orfel y Jame Oarbstbr, Ymb Frkudbetfthvb Yure he ^a`hgy Fef`yshs fei ^`fe-
ehek, Iurlmfd: Iulb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 6887.Kuee, @bwhs F., ‐[my Hs Hdp`b-dbetfthae Wa Ihogu`t1— Dfefkbdbet Wbrvhgbs he Kavbredbet , 77: 6?8-6;?, 68;=.
Mf``, ^btbr, Ymb ^a`hthgf` ^awbr ao Bgaeadhg Hibfs: Lbyebshfehsd Fgrass Ef-
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
6=>
thaes, ^rhegbtae, ^rhegbtae Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 68=8.
Makwaai, Crhfe y @bwhs Kuee, ^a`hgy Fef`yshs oar tmb Sbf` [ar`i , Axoari,Axoari Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 68=9.
Hddbrkut, B``be, ‐Hest htuthaef` Gaestrfhets—, be D. Darfe, D. Sbhe y S. Kaaihe(Bis.) Ymb Axoari Mfeicaal ao ^uc`hg ^a`hgy, Axoari, Axoari Rehvbrshty^rbss, 3>>?.
Hekrfd, Mb`be, Feeb Wgmebhibr y ^btbr ib @bae, ‐Waghf` Gaestrugthae fei ^a`hgyIbshke—, be ^fu` Wfcfthbr (Bi.) Ymbarhbs ao tmb ^a`hgy ^ragbss, Cau`ibr (Ga),[bstvhbw ^rbss, 3>>;.
Jbelhes, [h``hfd, ^a`hgy Fef`yshs: F ^a`hthgf` fei Arkfehzfthaef` ^brspbgthvb,@aeiae, Dfrthe Sacbrtsae, 68;=.
Jame, ^btbr., Fef`yzhek ^uc`hg ^a`hgy, @aeiae, ^hetbr, 688=.
Jaebs, Gmfr`bs A., Fe Hetraiugthae ao tmb Wtuiy ao ^uc`hg ^a`hgy, Cb`daet, Gf`.,[fiswartm Ga., 68;>.
Lbehs, ^ftrhgl y _a`lbr Wgmebhibr, ‐^a`hgy Ebtwarls fei ^a`hgy Fef`yshs:Wgruthehzhek f Ebw Fef`ythgf` Yaa`cax—, be C. Dfrhe y S. Dfyetz (Bis.) ^a`h-
gy Ebtwarls: Bdphrhgf` Bvhibegb fei Ymbarbthgf` Gaeshibrfthaes, Orfelour t/Cau`ibr, [bstvhbw ^rbss, 6886.
Lhglbrt, [f`tbr, Brhl-Mfes L`hje y Jaap O.D. Lappbejfe, ‐F Dfefkbdbet ^brspbg-thvb ae ^a`hgy Ebtwarls—, be [. Lhglbrt, B. L`hje y J. Lappbejfe (Bis.) Dfef-
khek Gadp`bx Ebtwarls: Wtrftbkhbs oar tmb ^uc`hg Wbgtar , @aeiae, Wfkb, 688;.
Lhglbrt, [f`tbr y Jaap Lappbejfe, ‐^uc`hg Dfefkbdbet fei Ebtwarl Dfefkb-dbet: Fe Avbrvhbw—, be [. Lhglbrt , B. L`hje y J. Lappbejfe (Bis.) Dfefkhek
Gadp`bx Ebtwarls: Wtrftbkhbs oar tmb ^uc`hg Wbgtar , @aeiae, Wfkb, 688;.Lhekiae, Jame, Fkbeifs, F`tbrefthvbs fei ^uc`hg ^a`hghbs, Castae, @htt`b Crawe, 68=9.
Lhsbr, @frry fei B`hear Astrad, ‐Ymrbb [ar`is ao Fgthae: F Dbtftmbarbthgf`Wyetbshs ao Hest htuthaef` Fpprafgmbs—, be B`beahr Astrad (Bi.) Wtrftbkhbs ao
^a`hthgf` Hequhry, Gf`hoarehf, Wfkb, 68=3.
@fsswb``, Mfra`i, Ymb Ibghshae ^ragbss: Wbvbe Gftbkarhbs ao Ouegthaef` Fef`y-
shs, Ga``bkb ^frl, Di., Rehvbrshifi ib Dfry`fei ^rbss, 682?.
@hjpmfrt, Frbeit, ^fttbres ao Ibdagrfgy, @aeiae, Xf`b Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 6888.
@hpsly, Dhgmfb`, Wtrbbt @bvb` Curbfugrfts, Ebw Xarl, Sussb`` Wfkb Oaueifthae, 68=>.
Dfeembhd, Lfr`, Hiba`aky fei Rtaphf , Ebw Xarl, Saut`bikb, 687?.
Dfrgm, Jfdbs fei Jamfe A`sbe, ‐Ymb Ebw Hesthtuthaef`hsd: Arkfehzfthaef` Ofgtarshe ^a`hthgf` @hob—, Fdbrhgfe ^a`hthgf` Wghbegb Sbvhbw, ;= (7): ;79-;98, 68=9.
Dfrsm, Ifvhi y D. J. Wdhtm, ‐Reibrstfeihek a`hgy Ebtwarls: Yawfris f Ihf`bg-thgf` Fpprafgm—, ^a`hthgf` Wtuihbs, 9=: 9-36, 3>>>.
Dfy, Juihtm y Ffrae [h`ifvsly, Ymb ^a`hgy Gyg`b, Cbvbr`y Mh``s, Gf`., Wfkb, 68;=.
Dbrtae, Sacbrt, Ybaräf y bstrugturf saghf`, Dbxhga, IO, Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bga-e÷dhgf, 682=.
Eflfdurf, Sacbr t, ‐Ymb Ybxtcaal pa`hgy pragbss fei hdp`bdbetfthae rbsbfrgm—,^a`hgy Wtuihbs Sbvhbw, ;: 693-629, 68=;.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6=6
Astrad, B`hear, ‐Sfthaef` Gmahgb Ymbary fei Hesthtuthaef` Fef`yshs: YawfriGadp`bdbetfrhty—, Fdbrhgfe ^a`ht hgf` Wghbegb Sbvhbw, =2 (6): 37;-397, 6886.
Astrad, B`hear, ‐Hesthtuthaef` Sfthaef` Gmahgb. Fe Fssbssdbet ao tmb Hesthtutha-ef` Fef`yshs fei Ibvb`apdbet Orfdbwarl—, be ^fu` Wfcfthbr (Bi.) Ymbarhbs
ao tmb ^a`hgy ^ragbss, Cau`ibr, Ga., [bstvhbw ^rbss, 6888.
^btbrs, C. Kuy, ‐Ymb ^a`hgy ^ragbss: fe hesthtuthaef`hst pbrspbgthvb—, Gfefihfe
^uc`hg Fidhehstrfthae, 72 (3): 6?>-6=>, 6883.
Smaibs, Sai F. [., ‐Oarbwari—, be [. Lhglbrt, B. L`hje y J. Lappbejfe (Bis.) Df-
efkhek Gadp`bx Ebtwarls: Wtrftbkhbs oar tmb ^uc`hg Wbgtar , @aeiae, Wfkb, 688;.
Sasb, Shgmfri, ‐Gadpfrhek ^uc`hg ^a`hgy: Fe Avbrvhbw—, Burapbfe Jauref` ao
^a`hthgf` Sbsbfrgm, 6: ?;-89, 68;7.
Wfcfthbr, ^fu`, ‐Fe Fivagfgy Gaf`hthae Orfdbwarl ao ^a`hgy Gmfekb fei tmb Sa` ao^a`hgy-Arhbetbi @bfrehek Ymbrbhe—, ^a`hgy Wghbegbs, 36 (3 y 7): 638-6?=, 68==.
Wfcfthbr, ^fu`, ‐Yawfri Cbttbr Ymbarhbs ao tmb ^a`hgy ^ragbss—, ^a`hgy Wghbegb &
^a`hthgs, 39 (3): 699-62?, 6886.Wfcfthbr, ^fu` y Mfel Jbelhes-Wdhtm, ^a`hgy Gmfekb fei @bfrehek: Fe Fivagfgy
Gaf`hthae Fpprafgm, Cau`ibr, Ga., [bstvhbw ^rbss, 6887.
Wfcfthbr, ^fu`, ‐^a`hgy Gmfekb Avbr f Ibgfib ar Darb—, be ^fu` Wfcfthbr y M.Jbelhes-Wdhtm (Gadps.) ^a`hgy Gmfekb fei @bfrehek: Fe Fivagfgy Gaf`hthae
Fpprafgm. Cau`ibr, Ga., [bstvhbw ^rbss, 6887.
Wgm`fkbr, Bib``f fei [h``hfd C`adquhst, ‐F Gadpfrhsae ao Ymrbb BdbrkhekYmbarhbs ao tmb ^a`hgy ^ragbss—, ^a`hthgf` Sbsbfrgm Vufrtbr`y, 98 (7): ?26-?;3, 688?.
Wgm`fkbr, Bib``f ‐F Sbspaesb ta Lhd Vufh`b Mh``‘s He Wbfrgm ao ^a`hgy Ymbary—,^a`hgy Gurrbets, ;: 633-63?, 688;.
Wgmdhttbr, ^mh`hppb G., ‐Wth`` tmb Gbetury ao Garparfthsd1— be . Wgmdhttbr y K. @b-mdcrugm (Bis.) Yrbeis tawfri Garparfthst Hetbrdbihfthae, @aeiae, Wfkb, 68;8.
Wgmebhibr, Feeb y Mb`be Hekrfd, ‐Waghf` Gaestrugthae ao Yfrkbt ^apu`fthaes:Hdp`hgfthaes oar ^a`hthgs fei ^a`hgy—, Fdbrhgfe ^a`ht hgf` Wghbegb Sbvhbw, =;(3): 779-79;, 6887.
Wgmebhibr, Feeb y Mb`be Hekrfd, ^a`hgy Ibshke oar Ibdagrfgy, @fwrbegb, Reh-vbrshty ^rbss ao Lfesfs, 688;.
Wtbhe, Brebsta, Dfrhfea Yaddfsh bt f`., Ymb ^a`hthgs ao ^a`hghbs, [fsmhektae,IG: Cfega Hetbrfdbrhgfea ib Ibsfrra``a / Ifvhi Saglbob``br Gbetbr oar @ftheFdbrhgfe Wtuihbs / Mfrvfri Rehvbrshty, 3>>?.
Wtbhe, Brebsta y DfrhfeaYaddfsh, ^a`hgdflhek he Fdbrhgf @fthef. Maw ^a`hthgs
Wmfpb a`hghbs, [fsmhektae, IG: Cfega Hetbrfdbrhgfea ib Ibsfr ra``a / IfvhiSaglbob``br Gbetbr oar @fthe Fdbrhgfe Wtuihbs / Mfrvfri Rehvbrshty, 3>>=.
Wgfrtfegheh, Gfr`as, ^fc`a Wph``br, Brebsta Wtbhe y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh, B` jubka
pa`äthga be Fdèrhgf @fthef ±G÷da sb ibghibe `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs1 Cakatæ:Cfega Hetbrfdbrhgfea ib Ibsfr ra``a / Dfya` Bihghaebs, 3>66.
Wtbpfe, F`orbi, ‐B`bgtarf``y Kbebrftbi _bta ^`fybrs he Rehtfry fei Obibrf` Wys-tbds—, be Biwfri Khcsae (Bi.) Obibrf`hsd fei Ibdagrfgy he @fthe Fdbrhgf,
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
6=3
Cf`thdarb, Ymb Jame Maplhes Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>9.
Wtaeb, Ibcarfm, ^a`hgy ^frfiax fei ^a`hthgf` Sbfsae, K`bevhbw, Wgatt Oarbs-dfe, 68==.
Wtaeb, Ibcarfm, ‐Gfusf` Wtarhbs fei tmb Oardfthae ao ^a`hgy Fkbeifs—, ^a`hthgf`
Wghbegb Vufrtbr`y, 6>9 (3): 3=6-7>>, 68=8.
Wtaeb, Ibcarfm, ^a`hgy ^frfiax: tmb Frt ao ^a`hthgf` Ibghshae Dflhek, EbwXarl, [.[. Eartae, 688;.
Yfdfya Wæbz, Dfeub`, ‐B` feæ`hshs ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs—, be S. Cfö÷e y B.Gfrrh``a, (Gadps.) @f eubvf Fidhehstrfgh÷e ^úc`hgf, Dfirhi, F`hfezf, 688;.
Ysbcb`hs, Kbarkb, ‐Ibghshae Dflhek he ^a`hthgf` Wystbds: _bta ^`fybrs he ^rbsh-ibethf`hsd, ^fr`hfdbetfrhsd, Du`thgfdbrf`hsd, fei Du`thpfrtyhsd—, Crhthsm
Jauref` ao ^a`ht hgf` Wghbegb, 32 (7): 3=8-732, 6882.
[h`ifvsly, Ffrae y Jboorby ^rbssdfe, Hdp`bdbetfthae, Cbrlb`by, Gf`., Rehvbr-shty ao Gf`hoare hf ^rbss, 68;7.
Zfmfrhfihs, Ehla`fas, ‐Ymb Du`thp`b Wtrbfds Orfdbwarl: Wtrugturb, @hdhtft haes,^raspbgts—, be ^fu` Wfcfthbr (Bi.) Ymbarhbs ao tmb ^a`hgy ^ragbss. Cau`ibr(Ga), [bstvhbw ^rbss, 3>>;.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6=7
GF^ÄYR@A _HH. @as pragbsas pa`äthgas ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs be `f
Frkbethef
6. Hetraiuggh÷e. 3 ^a`äthgfs púc`hgfs be `f Frkbethef. 3.6 @as ghg`as ib `f pa`äthgf be `f Frkbethef: ib` gfphtf`hsda a`hkærquhga f `f rbgupbrfgh÷e ib` bs-tfia. 7. B` pragbsa ib oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs be `f Frkbethef: 7.6. ^frth-ias pa`äthgas. 7.3. B` ^aibr Bjbguthva. 7.7. @as kacbrefiarbs. 7.9. B` Gaekrb-sa. 7.2. B` ^aibr Juihghf`. 7.?. @f curagrfghf. 7.;. Fgtarbs ib `f Waghbifi Ghvh`.9. ^rheghpf`bs frbefs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: 9.6. B` jubka sgf` obibrf`. 9.3.
B` jubka ib` prbsupubsta púc`hga. 2. Be rbsudbe.
6. HEYSAIRGGH×E
@f hibf ib bstb gfpätu`a bs prbsbetfr ib oardf shstbdæthgf g÷da oubrae `as pra-
gbsas ib oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs be Frkbethef. ^frf bsta, vfdas f bdprbeibr ue
feæ`hshs ib `as väegu`as betrb hesthtughaebs pa`äthgfs, `as pragbsas ib oardu`fgh÷e ib
pa`äthgf y fs gaesbgubeghfs pa`äthgfs.
Gada vhdas ibsib b` hehgha ib bstb `hcra, `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ea sae shdp`b-
dbetb acjbta ib b`bgghaebs ib ue p`fehgfiar saghf` qub hetbetf dfxhdhzfr b` chbe-
bstfr ib `f pac`fgh÷e, shea dæs chbe gaesbgubeghf ib ue pragbsa ib tadf ib ibgh-
shaebs qub heva`ugrf uef du`thp`hghifi ib fgtarbs pa`äthgas qub hetbrfgtúfe be uef
du`thp`hghifi ib bsgbefrhas.
@as bstuihas qub fcarifrae b` feæ`hshs ib `as pragbsas ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib
pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs be `f Frkbethef y Fdèrhgf @fthef pubibe ihvhihrsb, f krfeibs
rfskas, be thpas ib beoaqubs, gfif uea ib `as guf`bs fiapt÷ ue beoaqub pfrthgu`fr.Ref krfe pfrtb ib `f `htbrfturf sb beoag÷ be `as feæ`hshs ib bgaeadäf pa`äthgf,
gbetrfeia su feæ`hshs be b` hdpfgta ib `fs prbshaebs ib `as fgtarbs bxtbreas y ib
krupas ib hetbrès. Bstas trfcfjas oubrae ibsfrra``fias be su dfyaräf be `f iègfif ib
68?> y 68;>. Be bstb pbräaia `f dfyaräf ib `as pfäsbs ib `f rbkh÷e sb gfrfgtbrhzfcf
par `f sugbsh÷e ib hetbrrupghaebs futarhtfrhfs f `as rbkädbebs ibdagræthgas, gae `a
guf` b` èeofshs par b` feæ`hshs ib `as krupas ib hetbrès bstfcf iadhefia par frbefs
oubrtbdbetb garparfthvfs, iaeib `as fgtarbs ofvarbghias oubrae f dbeuia gfpfgbs
ib bxtrfbr rbetfs. ^frf`b`fdbetb, atra krupa ib trfcfjas sb gbetrfrae be `as feæ`h-
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
6=9
shs sbgtarhf`bs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. Gada chbe sböf`fe Asgfr Asz`fl y Kuh``brda
A‘Iaeeb`` (68;?), cubef pfrtb ib `fs puc`hgfghaebs ib bsb pbräaia gaeshibrf `fs
pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs gada uehifibs ihsgrbtfs qub pubibe sbr bstuihfifs prbsgheihbe-
ia ib` gaetbxta be b` qub sae fiaptfifs a be b` qub praiugbe gaesbgubeghfs. Bstb
beoaqub bstfc`bgb uef hdpartfetb ihsthegh÷e betrb `f pa`äthgf dhsdf y sus bobgtas,bs ibghr, `fs gaesbgubeghfs prbsuetfdbetb pravagfifs par su fiapgh÷e b hdp`bdbe-
tfgh÷e. Bsta bs fsä parqub `f ef`hifi ib` beoaqub bs bdhebetbdbetb ihfke÷sthgf. B`
èeofshs bstuva pubsta be `f gaegbptuf`hzfgh÷e y dbihgh÷e ib ‐hdpfgtas— ib pa`äthgfs
bstftf`bs sbgtarhf`bs (Asz`fl y A‘Iaeeb``, 68;?).
^frf atras futarbs, b` èeofshs ibcäf sbr pubsta be b` ra` ib `fs hesthtughaebs pa`äthgfs
gada vfrhfc`bs bxp`hgfthvfs. Ea ibsgfrtfe `f hdpartfeghf ib` feæ`hshs ib `as krupas ib
hetbrès f` dadbeta ib bxp`hgfr gadp`bdbetfrhfdbetb `as pragbsas ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷eib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. ^bra paebe b` prhsdf sacrb `f mfch`hifi ib `as fgtarbs pa`äthgas
pfrf akrfr rbsu tfias gaapbrfthvas, a sbf, akrfr frrbk`as pa äthgas y dfetbebr`as be b`
thbdpa. X bsta ibpbeib ib` eúdbra ib fgtarbs g`fvbs (prbshibetbs, `äibrbs ib pfrthias
pa`äthgas, bkhs fiarbs, jubgbs, kacbrefiarbs, cur÷grftfs, äibrbs sheihgf`bs a bdprbsfrha,
btg.), ib sus marhzaetbs tbdparf`bs, ib `f orbgubeghf ib su hetbrfggh÷e, ib `as bsgbefrhas
be `as guf`bs hetbrfgtúfe (qub pubibe sbr oardf`bs gada b` paibr bjbguthva a b` paibr
`bkhs`fthva, a heoardf`bs, gada `f gf``b) y ib `f ihspaehch`hifi ib dbgfehsdas ib beoar-
gbdbet qub `as ac`hkub f gudp`hr gae `as gadpradhsas (Wgfrtfsgheh bt f`, 3>66: ;).^frf fef`hzfr bstb gfpätu`a, mbdas ihvhihia b` feæ`hshs be ias: be ue prhdbr da-
dbeta rbgaestruhrbdas mhst÷rhgfdbetb `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs frkbethefs hetbetfeia
rbgaeagbr `fs prheghpf`bs ibghshaebs qub dfrgfrae uef ibpbeibeghf ib `f trfybgta-
rhf be `as pragbsas ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. ^astbrhardbetb fef`h-
zfrbdas b` gadpartfdhbeta ib `as prheghpf`bs fgtarbs ib` jubka ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e
ib pa`äthgfs f `as ebs ib fef`hzfr guæ`bs oubrae sus prheghpf`bs hegbethvas y guæ`bs
oubrae `fs prheghpf`bs rbstrhgghaebs qub beorbetfrae.
3. ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW BE FSKBEYHEF
@f dfebrf be qub hetbrfgtúfe `fs oubrzfs ib gfdcha y `f hebrghf ib f gaetheuhifi bs
ue t÷phga qub mhst÷rhgfdbetb mf gaeghtfia krfe ftbegh÷e be b` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs. @fs pfrthgu`frhifibs ib` gfsa frkbethea ea bsgfpf f tf` gubsth÷e, y uef vfs-
tf `htbrfturf mf vhsta `f `uz pragurfeia bstfc`bgbr pfrædbtras qub pbrdhtfe bvf`ufr
`f bxtbesh÷e, `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs b heg`usa `as dbgfehsdas ib gfdcha pa`äthga orbetbf `f gaetheuhifi ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs efghaef`bs.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6=2
Gada vhdas be b` Gfphtu`a _, `as gfdchas be `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs surkbe gufe-
ia uef eubvf pa`äthgf púc`hgf rbbdp`fzf f `f bxhstbetb, kbebrfeia ue eubva stftu
qua (Ga`adbr, 3>>8< Ysbcb`hs, 688=). B` feæ`hshs ib `as pragbsas ib gfdchas ib `f
pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs frkbethefs mf shia rbobrhia par `f `htbrfturf f pfrthr ib ias thpas
ib bxp`hgfghaebs fetfk÷ehgfs, be ghbrtf dbihif: b` prhdbra paeb b` èeofshs be vf-rhfc`bs pa`äthga-hesthtughaef`bs6, b` sbkueia gbetrf su ftbegh÷e be ibtbrdhefetbs ib
thpa curagræthga-bstftf`3. ^frf b` prhdbr thpa ib feæ`hshs, b` qub prhvh`bkhf vfrhfc`bs
bxp`hgfthvfs ib thpa pa`äthga-hesthtughaef`, `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs frkbethefs sb gfrfg-
tbrhzfe par sbr cæshgfdbetb hebstfc`bs y va`æth`bs (Wph``br y Yaddfsh, 3>>;). ^ar b`
gaetrfrha, `as trfcfjas qub gbetrfe su dhrfif be vfrhfc`bs rb`fthvfs f` ibsbdpböa cu-
ragræthga bstftf` thbeibe f gaeshibrfr `a qub sugbib f` hetbrhar ib` Bstfia gada hes-
tfeghf prbvhf f f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib fs pa`äthgfs. frf bstf garrhbetb f bstfch`hifi ahebstfch`hifi ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ibpbeibe be krfe dbihif ib `a qub ibtbrdhef
b` rhtda ib `as ghg`as pa`äthgas y ea f` rbvès. Be bstb sbethia, `as trfcfjas qub sb fp`h-
gfrae f fef`hzfr b` gfsa frkbethea acsbrvfe qub `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs bstæe hdcuhifs
ib pftraebs qub `bs ife uef hebrghf qub mfgb qub `fs rbk`fs qub rhkbe f `fs curagrf-
ghfs pbrshstfe (bsta bs, gfdchbe paga) y sb rbpraiuzgfe. Bstfs rbk`fs heg`uybe f `as
pragbihdhbetas, ruthefs y gaevbeghaebs oardf`bs a heoardf`bs qub sb begubetrfe
berfhzfias be `f bstrugturf arkfehzfghaef` y gaeoardfe `as pragbihdhbetas apbrfth-
vas ib `f curagrfghf (A‘Iaeeb``, 68=3< Gfvfrazzh, 68=;< Ga``hbr y Ga``hbr, 6886)7. Bebstas fcarifjbs kachbref uef vhsh÷e ib` gfdcha gada f`ka gaetheua, beta, fgudu`f-
thva y eardf`dbetb ea prbdbihtfia. Bstb ibpbeib dugma dæs ib `fs ghrguestfeghfs
y ib `fs shtufghaebs pfrthgu`frbs qub ib `fs hetbeghaebs ib `as fgtarbs.
6 @fs vfrhfc`bs pfrf fef`hzfr `as pftraebs ib bstfch`hifi/hestfch`hifi ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sae
beueghfifs ib ihobrbetbs daias: bstfch`hifi (DgGucches, Ea`` y [bhekfst, 68=8< DgGucches yWgmwfrtz, 68=9< Ysbcb`hs, 688=)< gfpfghifi ib heeavfgh÷e (Mucbr, 688=)< gaeshstbeghf (Gax y Dg-Gucches, 6889)< a gaetheuhifi (Wfcfthbr y Jbelhes-Wdhtm, 6888< Mffs, 3>>9). ^frf b` feæ`hshs ib `as pfäsbs `ftheafdbrhgfeas, `fs ihdbeshaebs prapubstfs oubrae bstfch`hifi, fifptfch`hifi, gaarihefgh÷ey gambrbeghf, gf`hifi ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e y arhbetfgh÷e f` hetbrès púc`hga (Wtbhe, bt f`, 3>>;< Wgfrtfs-gheh, bt f`, 3>66).
3 Wacrb b` pfrthgu`fr pubib gaesu`tfrsb ^btbrs (3>>7).
7 Be bstb dhsda sbethia, ue trfcfja ib arhbetfgh÷e wbcbrhfef, Bvfes, Subsgmdbybr y Wlagpa` (68=2)hestfe f rbgupbrfr b` bstuiha ib `fs bstrugturfs hetbrefs ib` Bstfia (gfrfgtbrästhgfs ib `f curagrfghf,gfpfghifibs bstftf`bs, heorfbstrugturfs b hetbrfgghaebs, mbrbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs, heeavfghaebs fidhehs-
trfthvfs, btg.) gada vfrhfc`bs bxp`hgfthvfs ib hdpartfeghf ibetra ib `f ghbeghf pa`äthgf y `f sagha`akäfgadpfrfifs. Be bsb dfrga atras trfcfjas rbtadfe y rbgaegbptuf`hzfe `f hibf ib futaeadäf bstftf`(Dfee, 688;< [bhr y Wlagpa`, 6887).
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
6=?
@fs ihvbrkbeghfs betrb `f `htbrfturf sacrb hesthtughaebs pa`äthgfs y `as feæ`hshs
ib `as dbgfehsdas bstftf`bs curagræthgas surkbe fetb `f ea bxhstbeghf ib dfrgas
tb÷rhgas s÷`hias pfrf bstuihfr `as pragbsas ib b`fcarfgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs ib ue
daia hetbkrf` (Gheka`feh, 3>6>: 2>). Ea prbtbeibdas rbsa`vbr bstb fetfkaehsda
be bstb dadbeta. Wa`a eas hetbrbsf dfrgfr bstæ ihobrbeghf f` dadbeta ib hehghfreubstra feæ`hshs.
F `a `frka ib bstb gfpätu`a vfdas f fef`hzfr bstas ias beoaqubs a trfihghaebs ib
feæ`hshs fp`hgfifs f` gfsa frkbethea. Gadbezfrbdas par fef`hzfr `as pragbsas mhst÷-
rhgas vhstas f pfrthr ib guftra dadbetas a ghg`as ib f pa`äthgf púc`hgf efghaef`, pfrf
`ubka fcagfreas f` feæ`hshs ib `f rb`fgh÷e betrb eúdbra ib jukfiarbs bxhstbetbs, `fs
rbk`fs qub rhkbe sus hetbrgfdchas y `as rbsu`tfias hetbdparf`bs be tèrdheas ib `f
oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs efghaef`bs.
3.6. @as ghg`as ib `f pa`äthgf frkbethef: ib` gfphtf`hsdaa`hkfrquhga f `f rbgupbrfgh÷e ib` Bstfia
Gadbegbdas par fcagfreas f hetbrprbtfr `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs frkbethefs be g`fvb
ib ibpbeibeghf ib f trfybgtarhf. Be bstb sbethia, paibdas hibethgfr as shkuhbetbs
ghg`as a dadbetas ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf frkbethef:
B` gfphtf`hsda a hkfrquhga: `f prhdbrf btfpf qub paibdas fef`hzfr bs `f ibeadh-efif Gfphtf`hsda A`hkfrquhga (Gfvfrazzh, 688?), qub sb bxtbeih÷ ibsib `f iègfif
ib 6=?> mfstf b` gadhbeza ib `f ^rhdbrf Kubrrf Dueihf` (6869). Iurfetb bstb pb-
räaia sb ibsp`bkfrae `as pragbsas ib gaestruggh÷e ib `fs prheghpf`bs hesthtughaebs
ib` Bstfia Efghaef`, sb bstrugtur÷ b` aribe ghvh` arkfehzfia be tarea f ue bstfia
guyfs pa`äthgfs oubrae f `f vbz uehvbrsf`bs y bxg`uybetbs y `f bgaeadäf sb hetbkra ib
dfebrf fchbrtf f` bdbrkbetb shstbdf gfphtf`hstf dueihf`.
Ibsib sus gadhbezas, `f pa`äthgf a`hkærquhgf tuva ias ihdbeshaebs: b` c`a-
quba ib taif pfrthghpfgh÷e f arkfehzfghaebs pa`äthgfs ib g`fsbs sucf`tbrefs y`f gaesbgubetb pfrthghpfgh÷e ib `fs g`fsbs praphbtfrhfs gada úehgas fkbetbs
pa`äthgas ib `f èpagf f trfvès ib pfrthias ib eatfc`bs. Bstb dbgfehsda ib ia-
dhefgh÷e oub b` gadpaebetb ibghshva pfrf dfetbebr b` aribe: par ue `fia, kb-
ebr÷ y kfrfethz÷ `f rbpraiuggh÷e ib `fs rb`fghaebs saghf`bs y, par b` atra, oub b`
eúg`ba frthgu`fiar ib `as dbgfehsdas bstftf`bs qub pbrdhthbrae f `as fgtarbs
iadhefetbs fpraphfrsb ib uef pargh÷e gaeshibrfc`b ib `as bxgbetbs be tèrdheas
ib hekrbsas (Wfcfta, 68==).
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
6==
@f gadpbtbeghf pa`äthgf hetrfè`htbs ea rbsa`vh÷ mfstf `f iègfif ib `as 7> eh b`
prac`bdf ib `f hesthtughaef`hzfgh÷e eh b` prac`bdf ib `f hegarparfgh÷e y pfrthgh-
pfgh÷e ib `as sbgtarbs papu`frbs be oardfs ib rbprbsbetfgh÷e ib dfsfs?. Bs rbghèe
be 687> iaeib sb praiugb ue rbaribefdhbeta ib` sbgtar prhvfia (prhdbrf ofsb ib
`f heiustrhf`hzfgh÷e par susthtugh÷e ib hdpartfghaebs), `f bstrfthgfgh÷e ib `f ghu-ififeäf sbkúe b` krfia ib bspbghf`hzfgh÷e `fcarf` y `f ftbegh÷e f `f fkbeif cæshgf
ib` davhdhbeta acrbra. Fetb `f ebgbshifi ib begfuzfr `fs ibdfeifs pfrthghpfthvfs
ib `as sbgtarbs saghf`bs acrbras, b` bstfia prapusa ibsfrra``fr uef sbrhb ib pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs f gfdcha ib rbku`fr `as pragbsas ib hegarparfgh÷e pa`äthgf ib `as davh-
dhbetas acrbras. B` rbgursa ib rbsa`vbr `fs grhshs ib hegarparfgh÷e be gaetbxtas ib
bsgfsf hesthtughaef`hzfgh÷e pa`äthgf (pfrthias pa`äthgas) ibj÷ gada sf`ia ue bsth`a ib
rbsa`vbr gaehgtas pa`äthgas par dbiha ib dbgfehsdas bstftf`bs (Wfetas, 6886: 68).Bstas dbgfehsdas oubrae `as qub gfrfgtbrhzfrae b` pr÷xhda pbräaia.
B` bstfia Waghf`: b` sbkueia dadbeta ib g`hvfjb be tarea f `f bstrugturfgh÷e ib
`fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs frkbethefs bs b` qub fcfrgf ue `frka pbräaia qub gadhbezf be
`f iègfif ib` 7> y gu`dhef f dbihfias ib `f iègfif ib` ;>. Bstb pbrhaia oub gfrfgtb-
rhzfia par `f `htbrfturf ib ihsthetf dfebrf: gada dftrhz bstfiagèetrhgf (Gfvfrazzh,
68=;), gada bstfia cbebofgtar (@a _ua`a, 6886) a bstfia ib chbebstfr frkbethea
(Hsufeh, 3>>2)< a uehvbrsf`hsda bstrfthgfia (Dbsf-@fka, 6886< Oh`kubrf, 688=).
Bstb pragbsa ib ‐krfe trfesoardfgh÷e— (^a`feyh, 6883), sb praiuja par `f hd- pashch`hifi ib` rèkhdbe a`hkærquhga ib hegarparfr f fgtarbs saghf`bs bdbrkbetbs,
y atark÷ f` bstfia ue ra` bsbeghf` gada ofgtar rbku`fiar ib `f vhif bgae÷dhgf y
saghbtf` y gada daif`hifi ib hetbkrfgh÷e ib fdp`has sbgtarbs ib `f pac`fgh÷e. Be
tf` dfrga, `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs qub sb ibsfrra``frae be bstf btfpf sb gfrfgtbrhzfrae
par `f gadchefgh÷e betrb sbkurhifi saghf` (`hkfif f `f oardf`hifi ib `as sbgtarbs
`fcarf`bs) y dbgfehsdas ib fshstbeghf púc`hgf ihrhkhias f `as sbgtarbs dæs pacrbs y
ea hesbrtas be `fs prægthgfs praiugthvfs g`frfdbetb arkfehzfifs. Be bstb sbethia, `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sb gfrfgtbrhzfrae par bstfr ihrhkhifs f oartf`bgbr `as pragbsas ib
gaesthtugh÷e ib` bstftus ib `as fsf`frhfias y `as däehdas uehvbrsf`bs ib vhif kfrfe-
thzfias par `as bstfias saghf`bs.
B` pragbsa ib hegarparfgh÷e ib `as sbgtarbs saghf`bs f `f frbef púc`hgf bstuva
gfrfgtbrhzfia par oubrtbs pa`äthgfs ib pratbggh÷e saghf` qub tbeäfe gada fgtar prhe-
? Bstf hegarparfgh÷e, tf` gada ibstfgfe Ga`hbr y Ga`hbr (6886: 9>), sb mhza ib dfebrf gaetra`fif ftrfvès ib ihsthetfs daif`hifibs: a par dbihas ib `as pfrthias a f trfvès ib` bstfia.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
6=8
ghpf` f` bstfia: (h) be `a rbobrbetb f` dbrgfia ib trfcfja, sb praphghfrae pa`äthgfs ib
p`bea bdp`ba y kbebrf`hzfgh÷e ib `fs rb`fghaebs sf`frhf`bs oardf`bs< (hh) sb rbku`frae
`as gaetrftas ib bdp`ba gae `f tbeibeghf f gaesa`hifr daif`hifibs oarihstfs ib ar-
kfehzfgh÷e ib` trfcfja< (hhh) kbebrf`hzfgh÷e ib `as shstbdfs ib sbkuras saghf`bs, bstf-
thzfeia `f gacbrturf ib `as rhbskas ib `f vhif fgthvf< (hv) bxpfesh÷e ib `f biugfgh÷e púc`hgf, heg`uybeia `f biugfgh÷e dbihf y supbrhar< (v) grbfgh÷e ib uef rbi ib sf`ui
púc`hgf bstftf`< (vh) rbku`fgh÷e ib as sbrvhghas ib heorfbstrugturf saghf` cæshgf< (vhh)
pa`äthgfs saghf`bs fshstbeghf`bs (trfesobrbeghf ib chbebs, sbrvhghas a hekrbsas daebtf-
rhas) ib gfrægtbr gayueturf` ihrhkhias f sbgtarbs pacrbs, ihrhkhifs f `f fcsargh÷e ib
bstas par b` dbrgfia ib trfcfja;.
Be `a rbobrhia f `f pa`äthgf bgae÷dhgf, b` ibeadhefia daib`a ib heiustrhf`h-
zfgh÷e par susthtugh÷e ib hdpartfghaebs (HWH) sb gfrfgtbrhz÷ par `f prbvf`beghf ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs arhbetfifs mfghf b` oartf`bghdhbeta a sucshiha ib `f aobrtf: b` -
efeghfdhbeta y f praiuggh÷e ib rbgursas bstfcf cæshgfdbetb be dfeas ib` Bstfia f
pfrthr ib ue gaejueta ib fkbeghfs y prakrfdfs ibihgfias f b``a (Iheh y Lftz, 688;).
Iurfetb taia bstb pragbsa oub ibtbrdhefetb `f f`hfezf pa`hg`fshstf gaestruhif f
pfrthr ib` pbraehsda, gaeoardfif par trfcfjfiarbs urcfeas y rurf`bs, `f davh`hzf-
gh÷e ib f g`fsb trfcfjfiarf frkbethef, f hdpartfetb heubeghf ib as sheihgftas y fs
rb`fghaebs betrb b` davhdhbeta sheihgf` y b` ^braehsda gada pfrthia pa`äthga.
^bra bstb daib`a prbsbetfcf heb`uihc`bs gastas pfrf dugmas fgtarbs y, par beib,gadbez÷ f p`fetbfr sbrhas ibsfoäas pfrf `as kachbreas. Bsta sb ibcäf be krfe pfrtb f
qub `f saghbifi frkbethef sb bstfcf tarefeia dæs gadp`bjf f rfäz ib` surkhdhbeta y
gaesa`hifgh÷e tfeta ib arkfehzfghaebs ib trfcfjfiarbs gada ib atras fgtarbs saghf-
`bs. Orbetb f` fvfegb saghf`, `fs rbshstbeghfs y `as tbdarbs ib `as sbgtarbs iadhefetbs
rbspbgta ib` pragbsa ib hetbkrfgh÷e ib as ibrbgmas saghf`bs y pa`äthgas sb fkrfvfrae.
^frf`b`fdbetb oub tbehbeia `ukfr ue prakrbshva ibtbrhara ib `as rbgursas ib` bstfia
tfeta pfrf bjbrgbr `f futarhifi `bkf` gada pfrf fidhehstrfr `as grbghbetbs gaehgtassaghf`bs y pa`äthgas. Gada rbsu`tfia, b` ef` ib` pragbsa bstuva dfrgfia par uef
oubrtb hebstfch`hifi pa`äthgf (sugbsh÷e betrb kachbreas ghvh`bs y dh`htfrbs), bgae÷dh-
gf (hefgh÷e) y b` usa ib `f vha`beghf (Fcf` Dbihef, 3>6>: 633).
B` pragbsa ib ibsbstfthzfgh÷e: b` ga`fpsa ib `f oardf ib arkfehgh÷e saghbtf` qub
tbeäf gada gbetra b` bstfia sb praiugb f dbihfias ib `f iègfif ib` ;>. Bstb bstu-
va `hkfia f pragbsas fkuias ib grhshs efeghbrf y sgf`, gaehgtas ihstrhcuthvas y
; Feirbefgh y Sbpbtta (3>>?).
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
68>
f beorbetfdhbetas pa`äthgas-hiba`÷khgas qub ibrhvfrae be b` ibsdfetb`fdhbeta ib
`as dbgfehsdas ib hetbrvbegh÷e bstftf` (Gfvfrazzh, 688?). Bstb pragbsa ib ibsbs-
tfthzfgh÷e bstuva dfrgfia par uef rbbstrugturfgh÷e tfeta ib `f pa`äthgf gada ib `f
bgaeadäf ib eubstra pfäs.
Yf` gada fpuet÷ Kuh``brda A‘Iaeeb`` (68=;: 3?2) bstf vhsh÷e fethbstfthstf sudh-ehstr÷ `f rbt÷rhgf pfrf `akrfr uef oush÷e hiba`÷khgf cfstfetb paibrasf: par ue `fia,
aorbgh÷ uef dhrfif gambrbetb ib g÷da b` df`bstfr bgae÷dhga, `fs grhshs pbrh÷ihgfs y
b` bstfegfdhbeta brfe kbebrfias par `fs prægthgfs bstftf`bs vhegu`fias gae b` daib-
`a ib HWH. ^ar atra `fia, `f hiba`akäf fethbstfthstf ihfkeasthg÷ qub `fs ihsputfs hetrf b
hetbrsbgtarhf`bs be tarea f `f rbku`fgh÷e bstftf` ib `f ihstrhcugh÷e ib hekrbsas brf `f
prheghpf` gfusf ib gaehgtas saghf`bs.
@f gaheghibeghf ib bstb ihfke÷sthga betrb fgtarbs efghaef`bs b hetbrefghaef`bsrbspbgta f` fkatfdhbeta ib` daib`a susthtuthva gae cfsb be `f fggh÷e bstftf`, ``bv÷,
iurfetb taif `f iègfif ib 68=>, f qub `f Frkbethef bxpbrhdbetfrf hestfeghfs ib
`a qub sb ibeadhe÷ fjustb gf÷thga (Ofeb``h, Orbelb`, y Sazbewurgb`, 6889)=. Be
tèrdheas kbebrf`bs, `f pa`äthgf bgae÷dhgf sb arhbet÷ par rbgadbeifghaebs ib` ``f-
dfia ‐Gaesbesa ib [fsmhektae—, qub oubrae fpayfifs fgthvfdbetb par b` Oaeia
Daebtfrha Hetbrefghaef` y b` Cfega Dueihf`. Bstfs gaeshstäfe prheghpf`dbetb be
: (h) rboardf dfgrabgae÷dhgf, heg`uybeia ihsghp`hef sgf`, fjustb y gaetra` ib`
kfsta púc`hga, rboardf hdpashthvf y `hcbrf`hzfgh÷e efeghbrf, (hh) rboardf ib` sbg-tar bxtbrea, heg`uybeia `hcbrf`hzfgh÷e ib hdpartfghaebs, rbiuggh÷e ib ibrbgmas
fiufebras, b`hdhefgh÷e ib sucshihas f heiustrhf`bs bstftf`bs< (hhh) pradagh÷e ib`
ibsfrra``a ib bdprbsfs prhvfifs f trfvès ib ue pragbsa ib prhvfthzfghaebs, ibs-
rbku`fgh÷e, kfrfetäfs pfrf b` ibrbgma ib `f praphbifi, y ftrfggh÷e ib hevbrshaebs
bxtrfejbrfs.
F `f vbz qub `f bstrftbkhf eba`hcbrf` hdpu`sfcf ue gaejueta ib dbihifs tbeihbe-
tbs f oartf`bgbr b` pfpb` ib` dbrgfia, tfdchèe sb prbagupfcf par rboardfr `as db-gfehsdas ib fggh÷e y gaarihefgh÷e bstftf`. Be bstb sbethia, sb mf gfrfgtbrhzfia `as
pragbsas ib rboardf ib` bstfia f trfvès ib` dbrgfia (@bgmebr, 688;: 6>) gada: (h)
= Bstas futarbs dubstrfe g÷da, ibsib ebs ib 68;> y f gadhbezas ib `f iègfif ib 68=>, `fs pa`äthgfs
arhbetfifs f` dbrgfia (dfrlbt-orhbei`y fppragm a DOFI) sb hdp`bdbetfrae gada besfyas rbpbthias ‗y dugmfs vbgbs gaetrfihgtarhas‗ ib pa äthgfs gadpu`shvfs: hetbetas ib fjustb gfif vbz dæs bxtrbdas
y, f` dhsda thbdpa, ræphifdbetb orustrfias, qub gadchefcfe dbihifs ib garta p`fza y `frka p`fza.F bsta sb `b sudfcf qub gfif eubva pfqubtb ib dbihifs brf hdp`bdbetfia pfrthbeia ib shtufghaebsgfif vbz dæs ihoägh`bs.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
686
ibsgbetrf`hzfif: supaeb qub `f ihobrbeghfgh÷e ib `f saghbifi gae``bvf `f fca`hgh÷e
ea sa`a ib` gbetra ib gaarihefgh÷e pa`äthga, shea tfdchèe guf`quhbr atra gbetra< (hh)
prhvfif: `f gaarihefgh÷e yf ea rbdhtb f `f ghuififeäf (pa`äthgf a saghf`) y, par `a
tfeta, f f`kuef hibf ib ‐chbe gadúe—, shea f `f rb`fgh÷e betrb heihvhiuas be tfeta
praphbtfrhas< (hhh) marhzaetf`: b` ibch`htfdhbeta ib `fs jbrfrquäfs bs rfihgf`hzfia f` pueta ib ebkfr taif rb`fgh÷e ib iadhefgh÷e, susthtuyèeia`f par uef sbgubeghf ib
fgubrias betrb hkuf`bs fgbrgf ib hetbrgfdchas betrb bquhvf`betbs< (hv) ea hetbegha-
efif: tadfeia f` dbrgfia gada ue pfrfihkdf ib` bquh`hcrha bspaetæeba, `f gaar-
ihefgh÷e saghf` bs gaegbchif gada b` rbsu`tfia ea hetbeghaefia, futadæthga, ib `f
hetbrfggh÷e saghf`.
Be `f Frkbethef, bstb pragbsa ib trfesoardfgh÷e pravag÷ qub b` Bstfia Efghaef`
sb gaetrfjbrf, ibsbdcfrfzæeiasb ib su fpfrfta praiugthva (väf prhvfthzfghaebs), ibsus ÷rkfeas ib rbku`fgh÷e bgae÷dhgf (väf ibsrbku`fgh÷e), ib dugmfs ib sus oue-
ghaebs ib fpaya (väf tbrgbrhzfgh÷e), ib `f prbstfgh÷e ihrbgtf ib `f dfyaräf ib `as
sbrvhghas púc`hgas (väf ibsgbetrf`hzfgh÷e), ib oubrtbs gaethekbetbs ib pbrsaef` (väf
rbthras va`uetfrhas y juch`fghaebs fethghpfifs) y ib uef pargh÷e efif ibsprbghfc`b ib
su gfpfghifi ib ibghsh÷e sacbrfef (Asz`fl, 3>>7: 296).
Be `a rbobrbetb f `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, b` bstfia eba`hcbrf` sb gfrfgtbrhz÷ par:
(h) pa`äthgfs ib ibsrbku`fgh÷e bxhch`hzfgh÷e ib` dbrgfia `fcarf`, gae tbeibeghf f
`f rbiuggh÷e ib `as gastas `fcarf`bs< (hh) rbdbrgfeth`hzfgh÷e pfrghf` ib `fs gacbrtu-rfs par rhbska ib vhif grbfeia (jueta f, a be `ukfr ib `f bstrugturf ib sbkuras sa-
ghf`bs) gufshdbrgfias ib kbsth÷e prhvfif y rbku`fgh÷e púc`hgf be sf`ui y prbvhsh÷e
saghf`< (hhh) rbvhsh÷e ib fs gadpbtbeghfs púc`hgfs ib biugfgh÷e f ofvar ib pragbsas
ib ibsgbetrf`hzfgh÷e y prhvfthzfgh÷e ib `f besböfezf f `as ehvb`bs sucefghaef`bs,
fgrbgbetfeia `as prac`bdfs ib efeghfdhbeta y orfkdbetfgh÷e betrb `fs jurhsihg-
ghaebs< (hv) rbvhsh÷e ib `fs gadpbtbeghfs púc`hgfs ib sf`ui be ouegh÷e ib eubvas
gufshdbrgfias, ibgbetrf`hzfeia y futfrquhzfeia hesthtughaebs be ue gaetbxta ibdu`thp`hgfgh÷e ib `f ibdfeif< (v) rbvhsh÷e ib `fs gadpbtbeghfs púc`hgfs be dftb-
rhf ib heorfbstrugturf saghf` cæshgf< (vh) ibsgbetrf`hzfgh÷e y prhvfthzfgh÷e ib `as
sbrvhghas púc`hgas< (vhh) du`thp`hgfgh÷e y orfkdbetfgh÷e ib as prakrfdfs saghf`bs<
(vhhh) hetbeshgfgh÷e ib `f oagf`hzfgh÷e be pacrbzf b heihkbeghf gada dbgfehsda
ib fshkefgh÷e ib` kfsta púc`hga saghf`< (hx) fpfrhgh÷e ib daif`hifibs ib rbhesbr-
gh÷e tutb`fif be b` dbrgfia ib trfcfja8.
8 Feirbefgh y Sbpbtta (3>>?)< Jfhdb y Wfcftè (3>>9).
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683
@f `÷khgf ib` fjustb gf÷thga ibrhv÷ be uef ihstrhcugh÷e gfif vbz dæs hebquhtfthvf
ib `as hekrbsas. @fs hebghbeghfs ib `as ihsthetas kachbreas pfrf rbsa`vbr bstf shtuf-
gh÷e, jueta gae b` ibsfrra``a ib uef saghbifi gfif vbz dæs heihvhiuf`hstf y mbtbrakè-
ebf, gaeiujbrae f` ibsgbetrfdhbeta ib `f pa`äthgf, qub ibch÷ gbibr `ukfr orbetb f `fs
rb`fghaebs dbrgfeth`bs. Be gaesbgubeghf, b` rèkhdbe pa`äthga pbrih÷ krfe pfrtb ib sugfrægtbr atrarf hetbkrfiar, suorhbeia praoueifs daihgfghaebs tfeta be `a rbobrbetb
f `as prheghpf`bs fgtarbs gada f `fs rbk`fs qub rhkbe sus hetbrgfdchas. _a`vbrbdas
sacrb bstb pfrthgu`fr be b` pueta shkuhbetb.
@f bxpbrhbeghf eba`hcbrf` `bk÷ f su e be ihghbdcrb ib 3>>6 gada gaesbgubeghf
ib uef praoueif grhshs bxprbsfif be tèrdheas bgae÷dhgas (rbgbsh÷e, ièght sgf`,
gbsfgh÷e ib pfkas), saghf`bs (fudbeta ib `f ibsagupfgh÷e y ib `f pacrbzf b heihkbe-
ghf) y pa`äthgas (davh`hzfghaebs papu`frbs, hebstfch`hifi hesthtughaef`, ibtbrhara ib f`bkhthdhifi ib `f g`fsb pa`äthgf.
B` pragbsa ib rbgupbrfgh÷e ib` bstfia: B` daib`a ib fgudu`fgh÷e bgae÷dhgf
bstfc`bghia gae pastbrharhifi f 3>>7 sb cfsa be uef pfu`fthef rbgupbrfgh÷e ib` ra`
ib` bstfia. Wh chbe bs ghbrta qub bstb eubva ra` taifväf bstæ `bjas ib ibsp`bkfr `fs
pa`äthgfs fgthvfs qub prhdfrae be `f dftrhz bstfia gèetrhgf, b` pragbsa ib rbgupb-
rfgh÷e vhbeb bvhibeghfeia b` bstfc`bghdhbeta ib ue eubva sbt ib pa`äthgfs ib cfsb
bstftf`. Betrb bstfs paibdas dbeghaefr: (h) b` bstfc`bghdhbeta ib dfyarbs gaetra`bs
sacrb `as ehvb`bs ib hevbrsh÷e ib `fs bdprbsfs prhvfthzfifs be ue hetbeta ib va`vbr frbku`fr sus fgthvhifibs< (hh) bstfthzfgh÷e ib f`kuefs bdprbsfs prhvfthzfifs iurfetb
`as föas ib 688>, qub bvhibeghfcfe oubrtbs prac`bdfs efeghbras< (hhh) hdpu`sa ib
pa`äthgfs ib rbku`fgh÷e ib` dbrgfia ib trfcfja f trfvès ib `as gaevbehas ga`bgthvas
ib trfcfja gada ebkaghfgh÷e betrb b` gfphtf` y b` trfcfja (Btgmbdbeiy y Ga``hbr,
3>>;)< (hv) pa`äthgfs ib sucshiha f `f aobrtf (tfeta be dftbrhf ib praiuggh÷e ib chb-
ebs y sbrvhghas gada be dbgfehsdas ib oadbeta f` gaesuda)< (v) rbbstfthzfgh÷e ib
`f sbkurhifi saghf`< (vh) ibdagrfthzfgh÷e ib `as dbihas dfshvas ib gaduehgfgh÷efuihavhsuf`bs.
Bstfs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs mfe shia hdp`bdbetfifs f pfrthr ib uef sbrhb ib ibeh-
ghaebs ib pa`äthgf qub hdp`hgfe ue oubrtb ibsfoäas rbspbgta ib su sustbetfch`hifi.
^ar ue `fia, `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs mfe pradavhia uef gacbrturf uehvbrsf` ib `fs
prbstfghaebs, guyf gbetrf`hifi bstæ pubstf be supbrfr `fs rhkhibgbs ib` dbrgfia ib
trfcfja (ibsbdp`ba, hekrbsas duy cfjas, of`tf ib hetbkrfgh÷e f` dbrgfia y f fs rbibs
daibrefs ib praiuggh÷e y gadbrghf`hzfgh÷e, btg.) f trfvès ib pa`äthgfs gaarihefifs
ib pradagh÷e ib` bdp`ba (^rakrfdf ib Sbgupbrfgh÷e ^raiugthvf ‗SB^SA‗) y pra-
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tbggh÷e saghf` (Fshkefgh÷e Rehvbrsf` par Mhja ‗FRM‗)6>. Bstfs pa`äthgfs mfe tbehia
bxgb`betbs rbsu`tfias be tèrdheas ib ihstrhcugh÷e ib hekrbsa (Fkhs, Gföbtb y fehka,
3>6>< Cfsuf`ia, 3>6>).
Atra ibsfoäa bs akrfr eubvas dbgfehsdas ib gaarihefgh÷e hetbrsbgtarhf` ib pa`ä-
thgfs púc`hgfs, `a guf` heva`ugrf g`frfdbetb fspbgtas pa`äthgas y tègehgas. _frhas fu-tarbs mfe ifia gubetf ib g÷da ibcbräfe fef`hzfrsb `as dbgfehsdas pra hetbkrf`hifi
y gaarihefgh÷e ib fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs (Gueh`` Krfu, 3>>2< Gfcrbra Dbeiazf 3>>?<
Sbpbtta, 3>>8< Dfrthebz Eakubhrf, 3>6>). @f kbsth÷e ib f pa`äthgf púc`hgf frkbethef
heva`ugrf `f hetbrvbegh÷e ib ihvbrsfs jurhsihgghaebs bstftf`bs, tfeta f ehvb` gbetrf`
gada sucefghaef` (pravheghf`) y/a b` duehghpf`, `a guf` rbdhtb tfeta f hetbrprbtfr b`
f`gfegb ib `fs eardfs oardf`bs vhkbetbs pfrf rbku`fr bstfs rb`fghaebs, gada f` thpa
ib prægthgfs ib gu`turf pa`äthgf qub fobgtfe ihgmas väegu`as.Gaejuetfdbetb, b` sastbehdhbeta ib bstfs pa`äthgfs hdp`hgf pfrf b` bstfia f ebgb-
shifi ib ue oubrtb bquh`hcrha betrb `fs gubetfs púc`hgfs y uef bstrftbkhf ib rbiuggh÷e
ib` beibuifdhbeta bxtbrea, be uef bstrftbkhf gaarihefif vhs f vhs gae kacbrefiarbs
b hetbeibetbs (@aia`f, 3>66).
7. B@ ^SAGBWA IB OASDR@FGH×E IB ^A@ÄYHGFW BE @F FSKBEYHEF
Be `as shstbdfs ibdagræthgas gada b` frkbethea, `as pragbsas ib oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs sb ibsfrra``fe be bsgbefrhas be `as qub pfrthghpfe uef vfrhbifi ib fgtarbs
pa`äthgas. Be bstf frbef, `as jukfiarbs sae fgtarbs bstftf`bs, pa`äthgas praobshaef`bs
(prbshibetbs, `äibrbs ib pfrthias pa`äthgas, `bkhs`fiarbs, jubgbs, cur÷grftfs, kacbref-
iarbs), krupas bdprbsfrhf`bs, sheihgftas, dbihas ib gaduehgfgh÷e y dhbdcras ib `f
saghbifi ghvh`.
F` hkuf` qub Bstfias Rehias, `f Frkbethef bs uef rbpúc`hgf obibrf`, gae oardf
ib kachbrea prbshibeghf` y uef `bkhs`fturf chgfdbrf`. Be tèrdheas kbebrf`bs, `f ib-
6> Bstb gaejueta ib rboardfs mf shia ibehif par `f `htbrfturf gada ib Rehvbrsf`hsda Cæshga, betbe-ihbeia par tf` ‐uef gacbrturf uehvbrsf` ib prbstfghaebs y rhbskas bsbeghf`bs, qub fsbkurb b` fggbsa ftrfesobrbeghfs, sbrvhghas y praiugtas qub gudp`fe gae bstæeifrbs ib gf`hifi madakèebas, atarkfiassacrb `f cfsb ib `as prheghphas ib ghuififeäf, bs ibghr, uef gacbrturf qub sb ihstfeghb ib` prheghphaib sb`bggh÷e ib cbebghfrhas ib sbrvhghas f trfvès ib `f ibdastrfgh÷e ib rbgursas y ib ebgbshifi qub
prbiadhef be `f rbkh÷e—. Be bstb pueta ib vhstf, qub prapaeb gaegbchr f `as sbrvhghas saghf`bs ‐gadaibrbgmas, pbra tfdchèe gada kbebrfiarbs ib ibcbrbs—, uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf ib uehvbrsf`hsda cæshga
‐fpuetf f pradavbr ue gaejueta `hdhtfia ib prbstfghaebs cæshgfs, qub heg`uyb `fs prbstfghaebs bsbe-ghf`bs ib ibrbgma uehvbrsf`, qub vfrhfræ ib fgubria gae `fs pashch`hifibs y ibehghaebs praphfs ib
gfif pfäs— (Oh`kubrf, Da`hef, ^fpfi÷pu`us y Yacfr, 3>>?).
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(hh) guæ` bs b` eúdbra bobgthva ib jukfiarbs< (hhh) guæ`bs sae `as väegu`as tbdparf`bs
betrb fgtarbs pa`äthgas g`fvbs< (hv) guæ` bs b` krfia ib hesthtughaef`hzfgh÷e ib `as
bsgbefrhas pfrf `f oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs< (v) be què dbihif bxhstbe y bstæe ihs-
paehc`bs dbgfehsdas ib beoargbdbet.
_bfdas, pubs, guæ`bs sae prheghpf`bs fgtarbs ib `f frbef púc`hgf frkbethef.
7.6. ^frthias pa`äthgas
Ibsib f iègfif ib 689>, f bsgbef pa`äthgf mf bstfia iadhefif par ias pfrthias,
b` ^frthia ^braehstf (oardf`dbetb ``fdfia ^frthia Justhghf`hstf) y `f Reh÷e Gävhgf
Sfihgf`. @f RGS, b` pfrthia vhkbetb dæs fethkua, surkh÷ be `f iègfif ib 6=8> pfrf
ibsffr `f iadhefgh÷e a`hkærquhgf. Actuva par prhdbrf vbz `f prbshibeghf be 686?,
`ubka ib uef rboardf b`bgtarf` ibdagrfthzfiarf be 6863. B` J bdbrkh÷ be `f iègfifib 689> cfja b` `hibrfzka ib Jufe Iadheka ^br÷e (prbshibetb ibsib 689? mfstf 6822
y ibsib 68;7 mfstf su of``bghdhbeta be 68;9) y ibsib betaegbs sb mf gaevbrthia be
b` prheghpf` pfrthia pa`äthga be `f Frkbethef. Mhst÷rhgfdbetb, `f cfsb b`bgtarf` ib `f
RGS mf shia f g`fsb dbihf y f cfsb b`bgtarf` ib` J mfe shia as sbgtarbs trfcfjfia-
rbs. Fuequb bstfs fsaghfghaebs sb mfe dfetbehia f `a `frka ib` thbdpa, fdcas pfr-
thias sae gaeshibrfias gftgm-f``, a sbf, sus pashghaebs pa`äthgfs thbeibe f asgh`fr be
tarea f` ‐gbetra— pa`äthga. Be bstb sbethia, b` pbraehsda mf gadchefia uef gaf`hgh÷edbtrapa`htfef cfsfif be `f g`fsb trfcfjfiarf urcfef gae uef gaf`hgh÷e pbrhoèrhgf
ib krupas pravheghf`bs pravbehbetbs ib sbgtarbs papu`frbs (Khcsae, 688;< Khcsae y
Gf`va, 3>>>).
Wh chbe tbrgbras pfrthias (ib hzquhbrif y ib ibrbgmf) mfe `akrfia be agfshaebs
f`kuef eatarhbifi pa`äthgf, mfe tbehia uef bxhstbeghf boädbrf, pbrdfebghbeia pagas
föas gada oubrzf pa`äthgf rb`bvfetb. Bstas orfgfsas sb ibcbe prheghpf`dbetb f `f
hegfpfghifi ib gaestruhr uef cfsb ib fpaya tbrrhtarhf` gada `f ib` J a (sbgueifrhf-
dbetb) gada f ib f RGS, be ue shstbdf pa`äthga iaeib f pa`äthgf efghaef` thbeb ue‐frrfstrb pravheghf`— duy oubrtb (Yarrb, 3>>7< Gf`va y Durh``a, 3>>9).
Ref ib `fs prheghpf`bs gfrfgtbrästhgfs ib` shstbdf ib pfrthias frkbethea bs su
rb`fthvfdbetb bsgfsa krfia ib hesthtughaef`hzfgh÷e (Dfhewbrhek y Wgu``y, 3>>2)69.
69 Dfhewfrhek y Wgu``y (3>>2) gf`gu`fe b äeihgb ib hesthtughaef`hzfgh÷e ib` shstbdf ib pfrthias be
cfsb f guftra ihdbeshaebs: (h) b` krfia ib bstfch`hifi betrb `f gadpbtbeghf hetbrpfrthifrhf< (hh) b` thpaib väegu`as qub bxhstb betrb b` pfrthia pa`äthga y atrfs arkfehzfghaebs ib rbprbsbetfgh÷e ib hetbrbsbsy `as ghuififeas< (hhh) `f pbrgbpgh÷e qub sb thbeb ib `as pfrthias y ib `fs b`bgghaebs f` dadbeta ib
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Ibsib `f rboardf gaesthtughaef` ib 6889 mfstf `f bg`ash÷e pa`äthgf y saghf` ib
3>>6 taia b` shstbdf ib pfrthias pa`äthgas frkbethea mf hia gfdchfeia. ^ar ue `fia,
taia b` shstbdf ib pfrthias sb mf orfkdbetfia, fudbetfeia b` eúdbra ib jukfiarbs
bobgthvas be b` bsgbefrha pa`äthga (Jaebs 3>>2< Wph``br y Yaddfsh, 3>>;). @as aräkb-
ebs ib bstf orfkdbetfgh÷e pubibe begaetrfrsb tfeta be b` shstbdf b`bgtarf` (rbprb-sbetfgh÷e parparghaef` gae cf``atfkb) gada be `f prbsbeghf ib ofgtarbs mhst÷rhgas y
gu`turf`bs qub sbkdbetfrae bgae÷dhgf y saghf`dbetb eubstra shstbdf pa`äthga.
Atrf ihdbesh÷e qub mf daihgfia b` shstbdf ib pfrthias mf shia su tbeibeghf f `f
ibsgbetrf`hzfgh÷e pa`äthgf rbkhaef`. Bstb pragbsa mf shia ibsgrhpta par vfrhas futarbs
gada ue pragbsa ib ibsefghaef`hzfgh÷e ib `as pfrthias pa`äthgas, f tf` pueta qub `as
prheghpf`bs pfrthias pa`äthgas ib` pfäs pubibe ibsgrhchrsb gada gaeobibrfghaebs gae
cfsb ib paibr sucefghaef`bs (Jaebs, 3>>2< Wph` br y Yaddfsh, 3>>;). Wfcbdas qub uefbstrugturf dæs efghaef`hzfif a dæs ibsefghaef`hzfif ib `as pfrthias pa`äthgas thbeb
gaesbgubeghfs be `fs iheædhgf ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs obibrf`bs (Shlbr, 68;2)62.
Bstb pragbsa ib rbgaekurfgh÷e ib `as pfrthias pa`äthgas mf shia gfrfgtbrh-
zfia par vfrhas futarbs gada b` pfsa ib uef bstrugturf gbrrfif y prbibghc`b f
atrf ib thpa dæs fchbrtf b hdprbibghc`b (Fcf` Dbihef, 3>6>). Bstb eubva frrbk`a
hesthtughaef` ib `as pfrthias pa`äthgas frkbetheas bs ibsgrhpta gada ue shstbdf ib
pfrthias orfkdbetfia be b` p`fea efghaef` qub gaevhvb gae ue shstbdf ib pfr-
thias pravheghf`bs qub thbeibe f gaesbrvfr pftraebs ib gadpbtbeghf bstfc`bs ygaegbetrfias, fhs`fias ib `as grbghbetbs ehvb`bs ib gadpbtbeghf efghaef` (Gf`va y
Bsga`fr, 3>>2). Fsä, be `as ú`thdas föas, `f ibsfrthgu`fgh÷e ib` shstbdf chpfrthihstf
trfihghaef` qub f`tbrefcf b` paibr betrb pbraehstfs y rfihgf`bs mf gbihia bspfgha
f uef eubvf gaekurfgh÷e pa`äthgf qub rbvb`f ue dfyar eúdbra ib fgtarbs pfrth-
ifrhas heva`ugrfias y `f oardfgh÷e ib gaf`hghaebs kucbrefdbetf`bs dæs ædp`hfs
(Fcf` Dbihef y Sftta, 3>>?).
7.3. B` ^aibr Bjbguthva
Be b` shstbdf pa`äthga frkbethea, `as prbshibetbs ibsbdpböfe uef ouegh÷e prbia-
dhefetb pfrf ibtbrdhefr b` prakrfdf ib kachbrea y oardu`fr prapubstfs be dftbrhf
ib pa`äthgfs. @f gfpfghifi qub thbebe `as prbshibetbs ib ``bvfr f gfca bstas prakrf-
kacbrefr< (hv) b` krfia ib ibsfrra``a qub thbebe `fs arkfehzfghaebs pfrthifrhfs y su heubeghf be b`
thpa ib arhbetfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
62 Wacrb bstb pfrthgu`fr va`vbrbdas be `as puetas vbehibras.
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dfs ib kachbrea y dfetbebr su heubeghf y prbsthkha ibpbeib ib `as ofgtarbs qub
mfch`htfe, rbstrhekbe y `b pbrdhtbe ``bvfr f gfca sus pa`äthgfs.
Be Frkbethef, b` prbshibetb bs duy paibrasa be tèrdheas ib `as rbgursas oardf-
`bs b heoardf`bs qub gaetra`f, y bsta sb rbbjf be: (h) ofgu`tfibs `bkhs`fthvfs: `f ofgu`-
tfi ib bdhthr ibgrbtas gae gaetbehia `bkhs`fthva bstæ bstfc`bghia be `f Gaesthtugh÷esa`a pfrf gfsas bxgbpghaef`bs y gae f ac`hkfgh÷e ib` Gaekrbsa ib trftfr f hehghfthvf
ib` prbshibetb be ue p`fza ibtbrdhefia. Bstfs ofgu`tfibs `b atarkf f` prbshibetb ue
oubrtb paibr ib ebkaghfgh÷e, ib jfr fkbeif `bkhs`fthvf (Ga`adbr y Ebkrbta, 3>>7)<
tfdchèe gubetf gae `f patbstfi ib vbtfr (pfrghf` a tatf`dbetb) `fs hehghfthvfs `bkhs`f-
thvfs, shbeia `f rbk`f pfrf supbrfr b` vbta prbshibeghf` ib `fs 3/7 pfrtbs ib `fs ias gæ-
dfrfs< (hh) ofgu`tfibs ea bkhs`fthvfs: b` prbshibetb pubib eadcrfr f as oueghaefrhas
ib su kfchebtb< tfdchèe bs ofgthc`b qub b` Gaekrbsa `b ib`bkub f` bjbguthvf b` paibrib rbku`fgh÷e sacrb f`kuef ærbf bspbgägf (Fguöf, 6882)< (hhh) paibrbs pfrthifrhas:
rb`fghaefias `f prapargh÷e ib bsgföas qub gaetra`f b` pfrthia a `f gaf`hgh÷e ib` prb-
shibetb be b` Gaekrbsa y `f gambsh÷e ib` pfrthia a pfrthias ib kachbrea.
Bstas paibrbs `b pbrdhtbe kacbrefr ib dfebrf vhrtuf`dbetb ueh`ftbrf`. Whe bd-
cfrka, b` usa bobgthva ib bstas rbgursas bs gaethekbetb f `f ihstrhcugh÷e ib` paibr
pfrthifrha y f` ehvb` ib hetbkrfgh÷e ib `as pfrthias pa`äthgas (Dfhewfrhek y Wmukfrt,
3>>;< Cadvbggmh y Zb`fzehg, 3>6>). Gada oub heihgfia be b` Gfpätu`a HH, `f tfsf ib
èxhta `bkhs`fthva ib `as prbshibetbs be `f Frkbethef sukhbrb qub `f hdfkbe ib ue bjb-guthva `bkhs`feia ueh`ftbrf`dbetb ea bs prbghsf, y qub ib mbgma bstb èxhta ibpbeib
be cubef dbihif ib as ehvb`bs ib papu`frhifi prbshibeghf` (Gf`va y F`bdæe, 3>>;).
Be bobgta, f gfpfghifi ib` prbshibetb pfrf hdp`bdbetfr pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ibpbe-
ib, be krfe pfrtb, ib sus rbsu`tfias b`bgtarf`bs. B` Gaekrbsa y `as kacbrefiarbs mfe
tbeihia f sbkuhr uef ib ias bstrftbkhfs: uef bs ib gaeoraetfgh÷e, mfghbeia `f kbsth÷e
ib` prbshibetb tfe ihoägh` gada sbf pashc`b< `f atrf bs gaapbrfr ‐ghbkfdbetb— gae b`
bjbguthva f gfdcha ib pfrthghpfr be b` jubka sgf` y be b` jubka prbsupubstfrha be b`garta p`fza6?. @f b`bggh÷e betrb bstfs ias bstrftbkhfs rbsu`tf ib uef gadchefgh÷e ib
gaeshibrfghaebs pfrthifrhfs y ib ihspaehch`hifi ib rbgursas sgf`bs. Gufeia b` pfr -
thia be bjbrghgha ib` ^aibr Bjbguthva ea gaheghib gae `as ga`arbs ib `as kacbrefiarbs
(y fs dfyaräfs be b` Gaekrbsa) y as rbgursas sgf`bs be dfeas ib` bjbguthva sae bs-
gfsas, uef bstrftbkhf ib gaeoraetfgh÷e bs dæs pracfc`b. Be èpagfs dæs ‐eardf`bs—
bs dæs ofgthc`b uef bstrftbkhf ib gaapbrfgh÷e (Gf`va y Durh``a, 3>>2).
6? Wacrb bstas ias jubkas va`vbrbdas f` ef` ib bstb gfpätu`a.
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7.7. Kacbrefiarbs
Be `f Frkbethef `as fgtarbs pa`äthgas sucefghaef`bs, be bspbghf` `as kacbrefiarbs
pravheghf`bs, sae duy hdpartfetbs be `f pa`äthgf efghaef` y be `f dfebrf be qub sb
oardu`fe `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs efghaef`bs.@f Frkbethef thbeb uef `frkf trfihgh÷e obibrf`. Gada be Bstfias Rehias, b` pa-
ibr ib` Bstfia sb ibeb be `f gaesthtugh÷e y bdfef ib `fs pravheghfs y ea ib` Ka -
chbrea gbetrf`. @as kachbreas pravheghf`bs thbebe futarhifi sacrb ue fcfehga fdp`ha
ib pa`äthgfs, b` guf` mf hia be fudbeta be `as ú`thdas 32 föas, ib tf` dfebrf qub b`
kfsta púc`hga ibsgbetrf`hzfia bs b` dæs f`ta ib Fdèrhgf @fthef (Of``bth, 3>>2). Whe
bdcfrka, `f rbgfuifgh÷e sgf` bstæ cfstfetb gbetrf`hzfif, `a qub grbf ue oubrtb ibs-
bquh`hcrha sgf` vbrthgf`, qub mfgb qub `as kachbreas pravheghf`bs ibpbeife dugma
ib `fs trfesobrbeghfs ib `as rbgursas efghaef`bs (Gf`va y Fcf` Dbihef, 3>>6).F bsta ú`thda sb `b sudf qub `as pragbsas ib ibsgbetrf`hzfgh÷e ib` kfsta
bstuvhbrae fgadpföfias par b` rboubrza ib `fs bstrftbkhfs ib chbebstfr: `fs pa-
`äthgfs efghaef`bs ib pratbggh÷e `fcarf` y saghf` tuvhbrae gada prheghpf` bobgtar
tbrrhtarhf` `fs fidhehstrfghaebs pravheghf`bs (Crusga, Efzfrbea y Wtalbs, 3>>9<
@bvhesly, 3>>;).
@f arkfehzfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf pfrthifrhf sb gbetrf dugma be b` ædchta pravhe-
ghf`. @fs gfrrbrfs pa`äthgfs, sacrb taia `fs bxhtasfs, sub`be gaestruhrsb sacrb cfsbsib paibr pravheghf`bs. @f sacrbrrbprbsbetfgh÷e ib `fs pravheghfs gmhgfs be fdcfs
gædfrfs ib `fs `bkhs`fturfs pravheghf`bs, `as dètaias bdp`bfias pfrf prapaebr gfe-
ihifturfs6; y `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs ib `as dbgfehsdas sgf`bs obibrf`bs gaetrhcuybe f
mfgbr ib `fs pravheghfs ue ædchta grughf` ib hetbrgfdchas pa`äthgas. @f hdpartfeghf
ib `as kacbrefiarbs sb rbbjf be b` mbgma ib qub trbs ib `as ghega prbshibetbs qub
agupfrae b` ^aibr Bjbguthva Efghaef` ibsib b` rbkrbsa ib `f ibdagrfghf mfyfe shia
kacbrefiarbs prbvhfdbetb (Gfr`as Dbebd, Biufria Iumf`ib y Ebstar Lhrgmebr),
ias ib b``as ib pravheghfs pbquböfs.@as ias pfrthias pa`äthgas prheghpf`bs mfe bjbrghia ue krfe iadheha sucefghaef`.
B` ^J gaetra`÷ ue pradbiha ib ?7% ib `as kachbreas pravheghf`bs betrb 68=7 y 3>6>,
gae f RGS be sbkueia ukfr gae ue pradbiha ib 39%. Iurfetb bstb pbrhaia ehekúe
6; B` shstbdf b`bgtarf` pravheghf` bstæ cfsfia be `hstfs gbrrfifs gae `fs pravheghfs gada ihstrhtas
b`bgtarf`bs. Bsta pbrdhtb qub `as `äibrbs pravheghf`bs be kbebrf` y `as kacbrefiarbs be pfrthgu`fr ibs-bdpböbe ue ra` duy heuybetb be b` pragbsa ib eadhefgh÷e ib `fs gfeihifturfs pfrf `fs b`bgghaebs
`bkhs`fthvfs.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
688
atra pfrthia gaetra`÷ dæs ib uef pravheghf. Atrf gfrfgtbrästhgf eatfc`b ib `as ka-
chbreas pravheghf`bs bs b` f`ta krfia ib rbpbthgh÷e ib eadcrbs (Frifefz bt f`, 3>6>).
Ibsib b` rbtarea f `f ibdagrfghf, b` gaetra` ib `as kacbrefiarbs ib sus ihstrhtas
pa`äthgas sb mf rboarzfia dbihfetb ias dbgfehsdas. ^ar ue `fia, mf mfchia rboar-
dfs pa`äthgfs qub mfe pbrdhthia f `as kacbrefiarbs sbr rbb`bgtas. ^ar atra `fia, `askacbrefiarbs mfe gaetra`fia b` gf`beifrha b`bgtarf` f ebs ib bvhtfr bxtbref`hifibs
ebkfthvfs (gafttfh` boobgt ) ibsib b` bsgbefrha efghaef` y pfrf fpravbgmfr `fs bxtbref-
`hifibs pashthvfs ib `f papu`frhifi ib `as prbshibetbs efghaef`bs (Gf`va y Dhgazzh,
3>>2).
7.9. B` Gaekrbsa
Gada ihjhdas fetbrhardbetb b` aibr @bkhs`fthva thbeb uef bstrugturf chgfdbrf .@as dhbdcras ib `f Gædfrf ib Ihputfias frkbethef sae b`bkhias be ihstrhtas
p`urheadhef`bs (`fs 37 pravheghfs y `f Ghuifi Fut÷eadf ib Cubeas Fhrbs) par pb-
rhaias ib 9 föas. @as ihputfias sae b`bkhias f pfrthr ib `hstfs pfrthifrhfs gbrrfifs.
@f gædfrf sb rbeubvf par dhtfibs gfif ias föas y gfif ihstrhta rbbdp`fzf `f dhtfi
ib sus `bkhs`fiarbs (a b` bquhvf`betb dæs gbrgfea). Dhbetrfs qub `fs cfegfs ib `f gæ-
dfrf sae tb÷rhgfdbetb fshkefifs betrb `fs pravheghfs gae cfsb f su pac`fgh÷e, gfif
pravheghf thbeb ue däehda ib ghega ihputfias. ^frf 6> pravheghfs, bstb dbgfehsdagaeiugb f uef sacrbrrbprbsbetfgh÷e (Sbyeasa, 3>>9).
@f sacrbrrbprbsbetfgh÷e bs dfyar fúe be `f Gædfrf F`tf. Fetbs ib `f Sboardf
Gaesthtughaef` ib 6889 gfif ihstrhta bstfcf rbprbsbetfia par ias sbefiarbs. Ibsib
`f Sboardf Gaesthtughaef`, b` Wbefia bstæ gadpubsta par ;3 dhbdcras, gae gfif
pravheghf rbprbsbetfif par trbs sbefiarbs b`bkhias ihrbgtfdbetb usfeia `f rbk`f ib
`f `hstf b`bgtarf hegadp`btf, qub bsthpu`f qub ehekúe pfrthia pubib agupfr dæs ib
ias cfegfs par pravheghf be b` Wbefia.
Be dugmas pfäsbs (gada Bstfias Rehias) `as `bkhs`fiarbs ibsfrra``fe gfrrbrfs ib`frka p`fza be b` Gaekrbsa, gae f`tfs tfsfs ib rbb`bggh÷e y gae bspbghf`hzfghaebs be ga-
dhshaebs `bkhs`fthvfs duy paibrasfs. Be `f Frkbethef, par b` gaetrfrha, `as `bkhs`fiarbs
thbebe duy cfjfs tfsfs ib rbb`bggh÷e y thbeibe f pbrdfebgbr gartas pbräaias be b` Gae-
krbsa (Wfhbkm, 3>>2)< sf`va bxgbpghaebs, ea sb bspbghf`hzfe be gadhshaebs pfr`fdbetf-
rhfs ib dfebrf bobgthvf y pfrthghpfe be ue bxgbshva eúdbra ib gadhshaebs (Jaebs bt f ,
3>>;). X, gada sb mf ibdastrfia, `f gbetrf`hifi pravheghf` ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf mfgb
qub `f dfyaräf ib `as `bkhs fiarbs bstèe dæs hetbrbsfias be gaetheufr su gfrrbrf pa`äthgfbe gfrkas pravheghf`bs qub be rbeavfr sus dfeiftas bkhs`fthvas (Jaebs, 3>>9).
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
3>>
Be säetbshs, `f gartf iurfgh÷e ib `fs gfrrbrfs `bkhs`fthvfs bs ue hegbethva ebkf-
thva pfrf trfesoardfr b` Gaekrbsa be ue fgtar paibrasa f` dadbeta ib oardu`fr
pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
7.2. B` ^aibr Juihghf`B` oueghaefdhbeta ib `fs hesthtughaebs juihghf`bs thbeb hdp`hgfeghfs ihrbgtfs pfrf
`f ofgthch`hifi ib `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib `as gaetrftas bobgthvas betrb pfrthgu`frbs, betrb
fgtarbs prhvfias y púc`hgas y fúe betrb fgtarbs pa`äthgas.
@f heibpbeibeghf ib` paibr juihghf` mfcäf shia bstfc`bghif be `f Gaesthtugh÷e
ib 6=27. Whe bdcfrka, `f `htbrfturf mf ibstfgfia qub, iurfetb iègfifs, `f Gartb Wu-
prbdf ib `f Efgh÷e ea mf shia ue ærchtra oubrtb b hdpfrghf` ib `as fgubrias pa`äth-
gas (Hfrygazawbr, Wph``br y Yaddfsh, 3>>;). Ibsib 68?>, `as jubgbs ib `f WuprbdfGartb ib Justhghf mfe tbehia duy crbvb pbrdfebeghf be b` gfrka. Ibsib 68?> mfstf
dbihfias ib `f iègfif ib 688>, `as jubgbs frkbetheas tbeiäfe f iurfr be pradbiha
dbeas ib ghega föas be sus gfrkas. Bstf hebstfch`hifi be b` gfrka mhza qub `as trhcu-
ef`bs thbeife f bstfr dæs f`hebfias gae b` paibr pa`äthga y qub, par beib, ea pubife
bjbrgbr ue oubrtb ra` ib gaetra` juihghf` sacrb `fs fgghaebs ib kachbrea. Bstf rbk`f
sb darhkbrfcf gufeia `as prbshibetbs sb ibch`htfcfe a ``bkfcf b` e ib su dfeifta
(Mb`dlb, 3>>2).Bstb pragbsa pfrbgb mfcbrsb daihgfia pashthvfdbetb f pfrthr ib 3>>7. @f gaf-
`hgh÷e lhrgmebrhstf daihg÷ `as pragbsas ib sb`bggh÷e ib `as jubgbs mfghèeia`as dæs
trfespfrbetbs y pfrthghpfthvas. Bstf eubvf gartb mf ifia sböf`bs ib heibpbeibeghf
heg`usa be gaetbxtas ib oartf`bzf prbshibeghf` (Durh``a, 3>66).
7.?. @f curagrfghf
Ref oardf pashc`b ib hestrudbetfr fgubrias pa`äthgas hetbrtbdparf`bs bs ib`bkfr `f
hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs f uef fidhehstrfgh÷e púc`hgf tègehgfdbetb gf`hgfif y
rb`fthvfdbetb heibpbeihbetb. Be `f Frkbethef bsta sb mf gudp`hia pfrghf`dbetb: ue
sbrvhgha ghvh` ièch`, gae f`tfs tfsfs ib ratfgh÷e y of`tf ib hegbethvas f `frka p`fza, mf
gabxhsthia gae hs`fs ib bxgb`beghf curagræthgf6=. Bsta trfja fpfrbjfia ue vfrhapheta
6= Ibetra ib bstfs hs`fs bs pashc`b hibethgfr sbgtarbs vhegu`fias f `fs efezfs, `as hdpubstas y `f
sbkurhifi saghf` (Cfega Gbetrf`, FOH^ y FEWBW), gae `f hevbsthkfgh÷e y `fs ghbeghfs (GAEHGBY,GAEBFR, HEYF, HEYH, WBEFWF, betrb atras), arkfehsdas rbku`fiarbs (BESB, BEFSKFW, ASW- EF, betrb atras) y f`kueas gubrpas praobshaef`bs bspbgägas gada b` Wbrvhgha Bxtbrhar ib `f Efgh÷e.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
3>6
dasfhga ib arkfehzfghaebs qub gadpaebe `f bstrugturf curagræthgf f` hetbrhar ib`
pfäs, ibchia f qub b` fgtar curagræthga ea bs ue fgtar madakèeba, shea qub gaevhvbe
ihsthetas thpas ib curagrfghfs, gfif uef gae sus `÷khgfs, grhtbrhas y ra`bs ihobrbeghf-
ias (Hfgavb`a, Zuvfehg y Sairäkubz Kustæ, 3>6>). Bstb pragbsa mf shia gfrfgtbrhzfia
gada ue pragbsa ib fvfegb hetbrdhtbetb (stap-fei-ka) (Cfdcfgh, Wph``br y Yaddf-sh, 3>>;).
@f prheghpf` bxp`hgfgh÷e ib bstb pragbsa bs `f of`tf ib fgtarbs gae hetbrès f `frka
p`fza be b` sbgtar púc`hga frkbethea, ue obe÷dbea qub be b` `bekufjb ib `f tbaräf ib`
prheghpf`/fkbetb sb mf ibeadhefia ‐fusbeghf ib prheghpf` f `frka p`fza—. Yaias `as
shstbdfs prbshibeghf`hstfs sb gfrfgtbrhzfe par qub `as bjbguthvas sbfe fgtarbs rb`fth-
vfdbetb gartap`fghstfs. ^bra be `f Frkbethef bstf shtufgh÷e sb fkrfvf par b` mbgma
ib qub `as dhbdcras ib` Gaekrbsa, gada vhdas fetbs, tfdchèe sae fgtarbs ib garta p`fza, y gfrbgbe ib hegbethvas pfrf mfgbrsb gae gfrkas ibetra ib `f fidhehstrfgh÷e
púc`hgf.
Fuequb `as pfrthias efghaef`bs pairäfe mfcbr ibsfrra``fia ue gubrpa ib oue-
ghaefrhas púc`hgas bstfc`b ‗gada sä sugbih÷ be atras pfäsbs `ftheafdbrhgfeas‗ `f
orfkdbetfgh÷e pravheghf` ib `as pfrthias mf mbgma qub `fs curagrfghfs suorfe
f`tas ehvb`bs ib ratfgh÷e y prfgthgfs ea gaapbrfthvfs ib `fs curagrfghfs pbrdf-
ebetbs (@bhrfs, 3>>?).
F pfrthr ib 3>>7 sb hehghf ue pragbsa ib eardf`hzfgh÷e y jbrfrquhzfgh÷e ib` bd- p`ba púc`hga. ^ar ue `fia, y gae b` acjbthva ib ibdagrfthzfr `fs rb`fghaebs `fcarf`bs,
sb va`vh÷ f hestfurfr b` rèkhdbe ib ebkaghfghaebs ga`bgthvfs ib trfcfja pfrf `f gfsh
tatf`hifi ib `as bdp`bfias ghvh`bs. ^ar atra `fia, `f dbjarf ib `f gf`hifi ib` bdp`ba
púc`hga sb oartf`bgh÷ f pfrthr ib `f daibrehzfgh÷e ib `f gfrrbrf fidhehstrfthvf gae
b` eubva Whstbdf Efghaef` ib Bdp`ba ^úc`hga (WHEB^, Ibgrbta 3>8=/3>>=) qub he-
garpar÷ eubvas dbgfehsdas ib bvf`ufgh÷e ib ibsbdpböa y ib hegbethvas f` dèrhta,
fibdæs ib `f jbrfrquhzfgh÷e ib `as praobshaef`bs y ib` pbrsaef` ghbetäga-tègehga.^ar ú`thda, y f `as ebs ib rbdbihfr `f prbgfrhzfgh÷e `fcarf` pradavhif iurfetb `as
föas ib 688>, sb hegarpar÷ krfiuf`dbetb f gfsh taia b` pbrsaef` f ue eubva rèkhdbe
ib pbrsaef` praobshaef` (Ibgrbta 3792/3>>=).
7.;. Fgtarbs ib `f Waghbifi Ghvh`
Bdprbsfs: `fs bdprbsfs sae fgtarbs g`fvbs be b` pragbsa ib oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äth-
gfs púc`hgfs. Ib taias `as sbgtarbs saghf`bs gae hetbrbsbs paibrasas, `fs bdprbsfssae `fs qub dæs rbgursas thbebe pfrf kfstfr. @fs bdprbsfs heuybe be `f pa`äthgf
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
3>3
púc`hgf ib ihsthetf dfebrf: (h) f trfvès ib rbprbsbetfr hetbrbsbs ga`bgthvas dbihfetb
fsaghfghaebs bdprbsfrhf`bs, `akrfeia gaetfgta gae `as oardu`fiarbs ib pa`äthgfs
ihrbgtfdbetb a f trfvès ib as dbihas ib gaduehgfgh÷e< (hh) dbihfetb b` gfch`iba a f
prbsh÷e f `as ibghsarbs ib pa`äthgf be `f btfpf ib oardu`fgh÷e b hdp`bdbetfgh÷e< (hhh)
gaetrhcughaebs f gfdpföfs b`bgtarf`bs: be Frkbethef bxhstb uef `by qub rbku`f b`efeghfdhbeta qub pubibe rbghchr as pfrthias pa`äthgas. Kbebrf`dbetb fs bdprbsfs
sub`be gaetrhcuhr be `f gfdpföf ib dæs ib ue gfeihifta (Wgmebhibr, 3>>2).
@as dbihas ib gaduehgfgh÷e: iurfetb dugmas föas, `as fef`hstfs ib pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs sucbsthdfrae b` pfpb` ib `as dbihas be b` pragbsa ib oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`ä-
thgfs púc`hgfs. Whe bdcfrka, iurfetb `as ú`thdas föas sb mf fgbetufia `f heubeghf
qub `as dbihas ib gaduehgfgh÷e thbebe be bstfc`bgbr `f fkbeif ib oardu`fgh÷e ib
pa`äthgfs, fgb`brfr b` rhtda ib `fs ibghshaebs, gfdchfr `as hegbethvas pfrf b` fpa-ya ib pa`äthgfs y fudbetfr `as gastas ib `fs pa`äthgfs be hetbrès prapha (Mukmbs,
3>>2). F pfrthr ib` oubrtb pragbsa ib gaegbetrfgh÷e ib `f praphbifi ib `as dbihas
apbrfias f pfrthr ib `f iègfif ib 68=>, b` kachbrea ib Grhsthef Obreæeibz ib Lhr-
gmebr prapusa f` pfr`fdbeta uef eubvf @by ib Wbrvhghas ib Gaduehgfgh÷e Fuih-
vhsuf` tbeihbetb f ibdagrfthzfr `as dbihas fuihavhsuf`bs a`hkap÷`hgas f pfrthr ib
ihvhihr ib dfebrf p`urf` y ihvbrsf b` bspfgha heoardfthva, rbku`fr b` fggbsa f bstb
bspfgha b hdpbihr `f oardfgh÷e ib eubvas daeapa`has dbihæthgas. @f dhsdf oub
fpracfif be agtucrb ib 3>>8.Wheihgftas: `as sheihgftas shbdprb mfe shia pfrthghpbs ibghshvas be b` pragbsa ib
oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. @as `fzas qub sb bstfc`bghbrae be b` pbräaia ib
gaeoardfgh÷e ib `f dfträz bstfia-gèetrhgf betrb acrbras arkfehzfias y b` ^frthia
Justhghf`hstf bstrugturfrae be krfe dbihif b` shstbdf ib pfrthias y `fs prbobrbeghfs
be dftbrhf ib pa`äthgfs mfghf `as trfcfjfiarbs. @fs `bybs `fcarf`bs ib bstb pbräaia
rbk`fdbetfrae b` pragbsa ib sb`bggh÷e ib ihrhkbetbs sheihgf`bs y dbihfrae b` pragbsa
ib hegarparfgh÷e ib `as sheihgftas f `f frbef púc`hgf (Ga``hbr y Ga``hbr, 6886). Bsta pbrdhth÷ qub, iurfetb b` pbrhaia susthtuthva ib hdpartfghaebs, `as sheihgftas frkbe-
theas tuvhbrfe ue krfe paibr ib ebkaghfgh÷e.
B` thpa ib arkfehzfgh÷e sheihgf` frkbethea heuy÷ dugma be hegrbdbetfr b` krfia
ib heubeghf ib `as sheihgftas. B` ehvb` be b` guf` sb rbf`hzfe `fs ebkaghfghaebs ga-
`bgthvfs (f ehvb` efghaef`, f ihobrbeghf ib atras pfäsbs qub `a mfgbe f ehvb` bdprbsf
a rfdf ib `f heiustrhf) ibtbrdhe÷ `f dbihif be qub `as sheihgftas pubibe pukefr
par pa`äthgfs cbebghasfs pfrf taias `as trfcfjfiarbs. Be bstb sbethia, b` thpa ib
rbprbsbetfgh÷e be Gaeobrbrfghaebs ib` Yrfcfja ofgu`tf f ebkaghfr be rbprbsbetfgh÷e
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
3>7
ib taias `as trfcfjfiarbs, bvhtfeia gaeiugtfs ib orbb rfhibr a pfrfshtfrhfs ib atras
sheihgftas, qub pubibe trftfr ib `akrfr ue fgubria dbjar bxg`ushvfdbetb pfrf b``as
be b` ædchta ib su bdprbsf a sbgtar.
Whe bdcfrka, bstf dhsdf gfrfgtbrästhgf mfgb qub `as sheihgftas prbbrfe pa`äth-
gfs ib `frka f`gfegb y guyas cbebghas fcfrqube f taias `as trfcfjfiarbs, gada `f
bstfch`hifi dfgrabgae÷dhgf, sh uef gaeobibrfgh÷e ib trfcfja pubib hdpaebr f taias
`as trfcfjfiarbs b` gasta ib `fs rbstrhgghaebs sf`frhf`bs (Durh``a, 3>>2). Bsta ``bva f
`fs gaeobibrfghaebs ib trfcfja f fpayfr `fs pa`äthgfs ib `hcbrf`hzfgh÷e bgae÷dhgf
iurfetb `f iègfif ib 688>, `a guf` ibrhva pfrfi÷jhgfdbetb be `f ihsdheugh÷e ib su
paibr ib ebkaghfgh÷e.
F pfrthr ib` 3>>7 b` kachbrea ib Ebstar Lhrgmebr dfrg÷ ue gfdcha be `fs bstrf-
tbkhfs ib ebkaghfgh÷e sheihgf`, kbebrfeia uef rupturf rbspbgta ib `f iègfif fetbrharrbspbgta ib `f rb`fgh÷e betrb bjbguthva y sheihgftas. Bsta sb dfehobst÷ be `f gbetrf`h-
ifi qub tuvhbrae `fs gaevbeghaebs ga`bgthvfs ib trfcfja gada dbgfehsda ib ebka-
ghfgh÷e y be `f bdbrkbeghf ib eubvas dfrgas rbku`ftarhas ib `fs rb`fghaebs `fcarf-
`bs. @f praiugthvhifi pa`äthgf ib bstfs dbihifs oadbet÷ ue rbtragbsa ib `f pratbstf
‐futagaevagfif— y b` oartf`bghdhbeta ib ue thpa ib gaehgta dæs hesthtughaef`hzfia
qub, be ue gaetbxta ib grbghdhbeta bgae÷dhga, ofvarbgh÷ `f rbbdbrkbeghf ib` sheih-
gf`hsda `äibr prheghpf` ib `f davh`hzfgh÷e saghf` (Btgmdbeiy y Ga``hbr, 3>>;).
Davhdhbetas saghf`bs: `f iègfif ib 688> praiuja ue oubrtb fudbeta ib `f pfr-thghpfgh÷e ib `as davhdhbetas saghf`bs be `f frbef púc`hgf y bsta sb rbbja ea sa`a
be ue hegrbdbeta be b` eúdbra ib `fs arkfehzfghaebs saghf`bs shea tfdchèe be su
heubeghf pa`äthgf. @fs rfzaebs ib bstb fudbeta `fs paibdas begaetrfr be `fs bxtbr -
ef`hifibs ib `fs rboardfs eba`hcbrf`bs, qub hegrbdbetfrae `f hegfpfghifi ib` Bstfia
pfrf rbsa`vbr `as prac`bdfs ibrhvfia ib `f pfupbrhzfgh÷e ib `as hekrbsas saghf`bs.
@as davhdhbetas saghf`bs pubibe tbebr rbg`fdas puetuf`bs a kbebrf`bs, sbr
prafgthvas a rbfgthvas. Whe `ukfr f iuifs, `f grhshs ibsftfif par `f rbeueghf feth-ghpfif ib` kachbrea ib Obrefeia Ib `f Súf (6888-3>>6) kbebr÷ uef fdp`hf kfdf
ib davhdhbetas saghf`bs ib thpa rbfgthva (‐qub sb vfyfe taias—) betrb `as qub pub-
ibe gaetfrsb ibsib davhdhbetas ib pratbstf saghf` hetbkrfia par sbgtarbs saghf`bs
vu`ebrfc`bs f `f grhshs mfstf arkfehzfghaebs saghf`bs gae ebs dú`thp`bs grbfifs
pfrf gadpbesfr `f hegfpfghifi ib `fs hesthtughaebs púc`hgfs pfrf rbspaeibr f `fs
ebgbshifibs saghf`bs. F pfrthr ib 3>>7 bstas fgtarbs mfe gadbezfia ue oubrtb
pragbsa ib hesthtughaef`hzfgh÷e, hetbkræeiasb f hesthtughaebs trfihghaef`bs, gada
`as pfrthias pa`äthgas.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
3>9
9. ^SHEGH^F@BW FSBEFW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
9.6. B` jubka sgf` obibrf`
Be `f Frkbethef, `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs efghaef`bs y sucefghaef`bs sb begubetrfebetrb`fzfifs par b` shstbdf obibrf`.
@fs pravheghfs ``bvfe f gfca uef krfe pfrtb ib` kfsta púc`hga tatf`, pbra rbgfu-
ife uef orfggh÷e rb`fthvfdbetb dbear ib `as hdpubstas. B` kfsta ib `fs pravheghfs
bs ib` aribe ib` 2>% ib` kfsta gaesa`hifia tatf` ib` sbgtar púc`hga frkbethea. Bstf
ghorf sb fgbrgf f` ;>% sh sb bxg`uyb b` shstbdfs ib pbeshaebs y sb oagf`hzf be b`
rbsta ib` kfsta púc`hga. Fibdæs b` thpa ib kfsta be dfeas ib `as kachbreas pra-
vheghf`bs thbeib f sbr pa`äthgfdbetb fgthva (kfsta be bdp`ba púc`hga y prakrfdfs
saghf`bs) parqub bs dæs gbrgfea f `as hetbrbsbs ib `fs jurhsihgghaebs rbprbsbetfifsgae cfsb tbrrhtarhf` (Yaddfsh, 3>>?).
Fmarf chbe, `fs pravheghfs efeghfe úehgfdbetb b` 72% ib` kfsta gae hekrbsas
praphas. B` rbsta ib su kfsta sb efeghf f pfrthr ib ue oaeia gadúe ib rbgursas
rbgfuifias par b` Bstfia Efghaef`, ib fgubria gae dbgfehsdas ib `f Gapfrthghpf-
gh÷e Obibrf` ib Hdpubstas. Be dugmfs pravheghfs pbquböfs, f prapargh÷e ib oaeias
pravbehbetbs ib bstb paza gadúe gaesthtuyb dæs ib` =>% ib sus rbgursas tatf`bs.
Ib bstf dfebrf, `as pa`äthgas `agf`bs ihsorutfe ib `as cbebghas pa`äthgas ib cub-ef pfrtb ib` kfsta púc`hga, foraetfeia f su vbz ib uef orfggh÷e dugma dbear ib `as
gastas pa`äthgas ib `f rbgfuifgh÷e (Wgfrtfegheh bt f`, 3>66). Ib fgubria f `f bstrugtu-
rf sgf` obibrf`, `as kacbrefiarbs, qub gada vhdas sae `as prheghpf`bs fgtarbs ib `f
pa`äthgf púc`hgf frkbethef, ibpbeibe pfrf mfgbr oueghaefr sus fpfrftas bstftf`bs ib
`as rbgursas ib` Kachbrea Efghaef`.
B` jubka par `f fshkefgh÷e ib oaeias kbebrf f dbeuia ihstarshaebs pa`äthgfs y be
`fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. Dugmas vatfetbs ib `fs pravheghfs thbebe hegbethvas pfrf prb-
dhfr f `as pa`äthgas qub sae dæs bobgthvas be gfptfr `as rbgursas efghaef`bs). Bstas jubkas ib gfptfgh÷e ib rbgursas sgf`bs pubibe sbr ueh`ftbrf`bs, ch`ftbrf`bs a ib gaf-
`hgh÷e (par b` Kachbrea Efghaef`, par uef pravheghf a par ue gaejueta ib pravheghfs
qub pfsfe f sbr oueifdbetf`bs pfrf ue vata hdpartfetb be b` Gaekrbsa a par atrf
rfz÷e) (Jaebs bt f`, 3>>;).
Be kbebrf`, b` ^aibr Bjbguthva mf kazfia ib fdp`has paibrbs pfrf fshkefr kba-
krægfdbetb ihvbrsas ätbds ib` prbsupubsta obibrf`. Be ue hetbeta par prbvbehr
gfdchas fivbrsas be b` outura `as fgtarbs pa`äthgas mfe hetbetfia hdpaebr uef df-yar rhkhibz sacrb b` shstbdf ib gapfrthghpfgh÷e obibrf`, rbiughbeia `f gfpfghifi ib`
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
3>2
Kachbrea Efghaef` fetb gfdchas ib `fs ghrguestfeghfs bgae÷dhgfs (par bjbdp`a,
ftfeia `f rbgfuifgh÷e ib ghbrtas hdpubstas f prakrfdfs bspbgägas). Be ue hetbeta
par shdp`hgfr bstas jubkas, as fgtarbs pa`äthgas hetbetfrae f`gfezfr fgubrias hetbr -
parf`bs ‗`as ``fdfias ‐pfgtas sgf`bs ib 6888 y 3>>>— ‗. Bstas pfgtas kbebrfrae
ue gadpradhsa räkhia ib trfesobrhr ue däehda ib hekrbsas ib` Kachbrea gbetrf`f `fs pravheghfs, qub rbsu`t÷ bxtrbdfifdbetb ihoägh` ib gudp`hr pfrf b` Kachbrea
Efghaef`, mfghbeia `as rbsu`tfias ib` jubka dæs hebstfc`bs b hebghbetbs (Wph``br y
Yaddfsh, 3>>;).
9.3. B` jubka ib` prbsupubsta púc`hga
Bstb jubka bs rb`fthvfdbetb gaetbdparæeba. Ibsib gadhbezas ib` shk`a ]] mfstf he-
ghas ib f iègfif ib 688>, b` Gaekrbsa ea fpracfcf f thbdpa b` prbsupubsta bevhfia par b` bjbguthva, `a guf` be `f prægthgf shkehgfcf qub `f fidhehstrfgh÷e oueghaefcf
heibpbeihbetb ib` prbsupubsta. Heg`usa be pbräaias ib f`tf hefgh÷e b` Bjbguthva eh
shquhbrf sb da`bstfcf be bevhfr b` prbsupubsta f` Gaekrbsa.
F pfrthr ib `f iègfif ib` 8> `as prbsupubstas gadbezfrae f sbr fpracfias be
thbdpa y `f fidhehstrfgh÷e gadbez÷ f rbkhrsb par `fs `bybs ib fidhehstrfgh÷e -
efeghbrf. Whe bdcfrka, b` Gaekrbsa shkuh÷ she hegrbdbetfr sus gfpfghifibs pfrf
gaetra`fr `f bjbgugh÷e prbsupubstfrhf. Ib mbgma, b` gaetra` bx past ib `f bjbgugh÷e prbsupubstfrhf (`f Gubetf ib Hevbrsh÷e) mf tbeihia f sbr fpracfif par b` Gaekrbsa
gae ibdarfs ib tfetas föas qub ibsvhrtúfe `f mbrrfdhbetf.
Bstf of`tf ib pbsas y gaetrfpbsas pfr`fdbetfrhas mfgb qub gfsh taif `f fgthvhifi
prbsupubstfrhf rb`bvfetb sugbif be `fs aghefs ib` bjbguthva y ea be b` Gaekrbsa
(Jaebs, 3>>6).
Mfy ias rbk`fs qub iadhefe b` jubka prbsupubstfrha frkbethea: f bxhstbeghf a ea
ib rbstrhgghaebs f fs bedhbeifs ib` Gaekrbsa f` praybgta prbshibeghf`< y fs ihobrbe-
tbs ihspashghaebs bxhstbetbs pfrf b` gfsa ib qub b` ibsfgubria betrb b` prbshibetb y b`Gaekrbsa ``bvb f `f fusbeghf ib uef ibghsh÷e be `f obgmf `ädhtb, qub bs par `a gadúe
b` e ib` föa sgf` (F`bshef bt f`., 3>>>< Ga`adbr y Ebkrbta, 3>>7).
Ibetra ib` shstbdf frkbethea, b` Gaekrbsa ea thbeb rbstrhgghaebs pfrf bedbeifr
b` praybgta prbshibeghf` ib prbsupubsta, ib daia qub uef dfyaräf ib `as `bkhs`fia-
rbs pubib fudbetfr, par bjbdp`a, b` daeta tatf` ib `as kfstas, ib `as hdpubstas a
heg`usa ib` ièght púc`hga.
Fmarf chbe, `f fusbeghf ib ibghsh÷e be `f obgmf `ädhtb a b` rbgmfza par b` Gaekrb-sa ib` praybgta prbshibeghf` grbf rbsu`tfia ib rbsbrvf: sbkúe `f Gaesthtugh÷e Frkbe-
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
3>?
thef, trfs ue rbgmfza ib` praybgta prbshibeghf`, b` prbsupubsta ib` föa fetbrhar qubif
futadæthgfdbetb prarrakfia f pfrthr ib` prhdbr iäf ib` eubva föa sgf`.
Ea bs ihoägh` ifrsb gubetf qub b` prbshibetb gae vbta thbeb uef beardb vbetfjf
ebkaghfiarf. Fetb `f g`æusu`f ib pr÷rrakf futadæthgf ib` prbsupubsta, b` `bkhs`fiar
dbihfea ib` Gaekrbsa tbeiræ hegbethvas oubrtbs pfrf hetraiughr bedhbeifs eatfc`bsbe sus prbobrbeghfs. B` prbsupubsta ib` föa fetbrhar fpfrbgb fsaghfia f` stftu qua
bxhstbetb. Fsä, sb fpracfræ ue prbsupubsta garrbspaeihbetb f `f prbobrbeghf ib` `b-
khs`fiar dbihfea sa`a sh `f prapubstf prbshibeghf` sb shtúf dæs gbrgf ib` `bkhs`fiar
dbihfea qub b` prbsupubsta fetbrhar. Be gfdcha, sb prarrakfræ b` prbsupubsta ib`
föa fetbrhar sh bstb bstæ shtufia betrb `fs prbobrbeghfs fgtuf`bs ib` prbshibetb gae
vbta y ib` `bkhs`fiar dbihfea (Ga`adbr y Ebkrbta, 3>>7).
2. BE SBWRDBE
F `a `frka ib` gfpätu`a rbvhsfdas, f `f `uz ib ias fcarifjbs ihobrbetbs pbra gadp`b-
dbetfrhas, `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs frkbethefs. B` prhdbr fcarifjb mfgb èeofshs be `as
pragbsas mhst÷rhgas, hetbetfeia rbgaeagbr `fs prheghpf`bs ibghshaebs qub dfrgfrae
uef ibpbeibeghf ib `f trfybgtarhf be `as pragbsas ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs.
^astbrhardbetb fef`hzfdas b` pragbsa ib oardu`fgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfsfrkbethefs paehbeia èeofshs be b` gadpartfdhbeta ib `as prheghpf`bs, f `as ebs ib
fef`hzfr guæ`bs sae sus prheghpf`bs hegbethvas y guæ`bs sae `fs prheghpf`bs rbstrhggha-
ebs beorbetfe f` dadbeta b`bkhr sus bstrftbkhfs ib jubka be b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbe-
tfgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs.
Sbobrbeghfs
Fcf` Dbihef, Jufe Dfeub`, Dfeuf` ib Ghbeghf ^a`äthgf, Cubeas Fhrbs, Buibcf, 3>6>.
Fcf` Dbihef, Jufe Dfeub` y Dfräf Gbgh`hf Sftta, ‐Ybeshaebs y ibsfoäas ib`shstbdf pfrthifrha frkbethea—, ^aebeghf prbsbetfif be b` ]]_H Gaekrbsa ib
@fthe Fdbrhgfe Wtuihbs Fssaghfthae (@FWF), Wfe Jufe, ^ubrta Shga, 3>>?.
Fguöf, Gfr`as. 6882. ‐@f eubvf dftrhz pa`äthgf frkbethef.— Be Gfr`as Fguöf(Gadp.) @f eubvf dftrhz pa`äthgf frkbet hef. Cubeas Fhrbs: Eubvf _hsh÷e.
Fkhs, Bdfeub` , Gfr`as Gföbtb y Ifehb` ^fehka, ‐B` Hdpfgta ib `f Fshkefgh÷eRehvbrsf` par Mhja be Frkbethef— Iagudbeta ib Yrfcfja GBH@ ^HBYYB , Cub-eas Fhrbs, Frkbethef, 3>6>.
F`bshef, F`cbrta y Mawfri Sasbetmf`, ^frthsfe ^a`hthgs, Ihvhibi Kavbredbet,
fei tmb Bgaeady, Gfdcrhikb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 6882.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
3>;
F`bshef, F`cbr ta, Shgfria Mfussdfe, Suia`o Maddbs y Brebsta Wtbhe, ‐CuikbtHesthtut haes fei Ohsgf` ^broardfegb he @fthe Fdbrhgf—, [arlhek ^fpbr Wbrhbs
789, [fsmhektae, IG: Cfega Hetbrfdbrhgfea ib Ibsfrra``a, 3>>>.
Feirbefggh, @ughfea y Ofchæe Sbpbtta, ‐Re gfdhea pfrf rbiughr `f ibshkuf`ifiy gaestruhr ghuififeäf—, be Gfr`as Kbrfria Da`hef (Bis.) Rehvbrsf`hsda cæ-
shga. Ref eubvf pa`äthgfs pfrf Fdèrhgf @fthef, [fsmhektae IG: Cfega Hetb-rfdbrhgfea ib Ibsfrra``a / Bihtarhf` ^`febtf, 3>>?.
Frifefz, Dfrtäe, Dfrgb`a @bhrfs y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh, ‐Ymb ^a`hthgs ao Obibrf-`hsd he Frkbethef fei ht‘s boobgts ae Kacbrefegb fei Fggaetfch`hty—, Rehvbr-shifi ib Wfe Feirès, Dhdba, 3>6>.
Cfdcfgh, Ju`hfef, ^fc`a Wph``br y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh, ‐Ymb curbfugrfgy—, be ^f- c`a Whph``br y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh (Bis.) Ymb Hesthtuthaef` Oaueifthaes ao ^uc-
`hg ^a`hgy: F Yrfesfgthaes Ymbary fei Fpp`hgfthaes ta Frkbethef , Gfdcrhikb,Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>;.
Cfsuf`ia, Biufria, ‐@f Fshkefgh÷e Rehvbrsf` par Mhja f ue föa ib su hdp`bdbe-tfgh÷e—, Iagudbeta ib Yrfcfja Eº ;. Gbetra ib Hevbst hkfgh÷e y Oardfgh÷e ib
`f Sbpúc`hgf Frkbethef GHOSF / GYF, Cubeas Fhrbs, Frkbethef, 3>6>.
Caevbggmh, F`bjfeira y Jfvhbr Zb`fzehl, ‐Sbgursas ib kachbrea y oueghaefdhbe-ta ib` ^rbshibeghf`hsda be Frkbethef—, Rehvbrshifi Yargufta Ih Yb``f, Dh-dba, 3>6>.
Catfef, Eftf`ha, B` aribe gaesbrvfiar. @f pa`äthgf frkbet hef betrb 6==> y 686? ,Cubeas Fhrbs, Bihtarhf` Wuifdbrhgfef, 688=.
Crusga, _f`brhf, Dfrgb`a Efzfrbea, fei Wusfe G. Wtalbs, ‐_atb Cuyhek he Fr-
kbethef— @fthe Fdbrhgfe Sbsbfrgm Sbvhbw, 78 (3): ??-==, 3>>9.Gfcrbra Dbeiazf, Berhqub. ‐Ib `f ibsgbetrf`hzfgh÷e gada fsphrfgh÷e, f `f ibs-gbetrf`hzfgh÷e gada prac`bdf. B` rbta ib `f gaarihefgh÷e hetbrkucbrefdbetf`be `fs pa`äthgfs saghf`bs— ^aebeghf prbsbetfif be b` Wbdhefrha Gaarihefgh÷e
y ^a`ät hgf Waghf`: Ibsfoäas y Bstrftbkhfs, Hesthtuta Hetbrfdbrhgfea pfrf b`Ibsfrra``a Waghf`, [fsmhektae, IG, 39 f` 3? ib dfya, 3>>?.
Gf`va, Brebsta y Jufe Dfeub` Fcf` Dbihef, ‐_atfr f `as rbprbsbetfetbs—, beBrebsta Gf`va y Jufe Dfeub` Fcf` Dbihef (Bis.) B` obibrf`hsda b`bgtarf`
frkbethea. Wacrbrrbprbsbetfgh÷e, rboardf pa`äthgf y kachbrea ihvhihia be Fr-
kbethef, Cubeas Fhrbs, Buibcf/HEF , 3>>6.
Gf`va, Brebsta y Biufria F`bdæe, ‐Fef`yzhek @bkhs`fthvb Wuggbss he @ftheFdbrhgf: Ymb Gfsb ao Ibdagrfthg Frkbethef—, be Kuh``brda A‘Iaeeb``, Ja-sbpm Yu`gmhe y Fukusta _frfs (Bis.) Ebw _ahgbs he tmb Wtuiy ao Ibdagrfgy
he @fthe Fdbrhgf, [fsmhektae IG: [aairaw [h`sae Gbetbr oar Hetbrefthaef`Wgma`frs, 3>>;.
Gf`va, Brebsta y Dfrgb`a Bsga`fr, @f Eubvf ^a`ät hgf ib ^frt hias be @f Frkbeth-
ef: Grhshs pa`äthgf, Sbf`hebfdhbetas ^frthifrhas y Sboardf B`bgtarf`, CubeasFhrbs, ^radbtba, 3>>2.
Gf`va, Brebsta y Jufe Gfr`as Dhgazzh, ‐Ymb Kavbrear‘s Cfglyfri: F Wbft-_atb
Daib` ao B`bgtarf` Sboard oar Wucefthaef` Du`thpfrty Sfgb,— Jauref` ao ^a`h-thgs, ?; (9): 6>2>-6>;9, 3>>2.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
3>=
Gf`va, Brebsta y _hgtarhf Durh``a. 3>>9. ‐[ma Ib`hvbrs1 ^frt hsfe G`hbets he tmbFrkbetheb B`bgtarf` Dfrlbt.— Fdbrhgfe Jauref` ao ^a`ht hgf` Wghbegb, 9= (9):6>2>-6>;9.
Gf`va, Brebsta y _hgtarhf Durh ``a, ‐F Ebw @fw ao Frkbetheb ^a`hthgs1 ^frthfe-smhps, G`hbetb`hsd, fei Kacbrefch`hty he Gaetbdparfry Frkbethef—, be Wtbvb
@bvhtsly y Dfräf _hgtarhf Durh ``a (Bis.) Frkbetheb Ibdagrfgy: tmb ^a`ht hgs ao Hest htut haef` [bflebss, ^beesy`vfehf, ^beesy`vfehf Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>2.
Gfvfrazzh, Dfrgb`a, Futarhtfrhsda y ibdagrfghf (6822-68=7), Cubeas Fhrbs,Gbetra Bihtar ib Fdèr hgf @fthef, 68=;.
Gfvfrazzh, Dfrgb`a. 688?. ‐B`bdbetas pfrf uef gfrfgtbrhzfgh÷e ib` gfphtf`hsdaa`hkærquhga.— Be Dfrgb`a Gfvfrazzh, B` gfphtf`hsda pa`ät hga tfriäa y su grhshs
be Fdèrhgf @fthef. Sasfrha: Mada Wfphbes Bihghaebs.
Gmhfrfdaetb, Jasè Gfr`as, ‐@f gubsth÷e rbkhaef` be b` pragbsa ib kbstfgh÷e ib`Bstfia Efghaef` frkbethea. F`kueas prac`bdfs ib hetbrprbtfgh÷e—, be [f`ia
Fesf`ih y Jasè @uhs Darbea (Bis.) Bstfia y saghbifi be b` pbesfdhbeta ef-ghaef`, Cubeas Fhrbs, Gæetfra, 68=8.
Gheka`feh, @ughfef, ‐B` bstfia ` äquhia: ihsgushaebs sacrb `f va`fthch`hifi ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs y bvhibeghfs ib Frkbethef y Crfsh` (6882-3>>?), Fdbrhgf
@fthef may (Rehvbrshifi ib Wf`fdbegf, Bspföf), 29: 97-?=, 3>6>.
Ga``hbr, Sutm y Ifvhi Ga``hbr, Wmfphek tmb pa`hthgf` frbef. Grht hgf` Jueturbs, tmb
`fcar davbdbet fei rbkhdb iyefdhgs he @fthe Fdbrhgf, ^rhegbetae, ^rhegb-tae Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 6886.
Ga`adbr, Jasbp, Ghbeghf ib `f ^a`äthgf, Dfirhi, Frhb` Bihtarbs, 3>>8.
Ga`adbr, Jasbp y Kfcrhb` Ebkrbta, ‐Kacbrefezf gae paibrbs ihvhihias be Fdè-rhgf @fthef—, ^a`äthgf y kachbrea, 6> (6): 67-?6, 3>>7.
Gax, Kfry y Dftmbw DfGucches, ‐Caeihek, Wtrugturb fei tmb Wtfch`hty ao ^a`h-thgf` ^frthbs: ^frty Kavbredbet he tmb Mausb—, @bkhs`fthvb Wtuihbs Vufrtbr y,68 (3): 362-376, 6889.
Gueh`` Krfu, Eurhf, ‐@f hetbrsbgtarhf`hifi be b` kachbrea y kbsth÷e ib `f pa`äthgfsaghf`—, ^aebeghf prbsbetfif be b` ] Gaekrbsa Hetbrefghaef` ib` G@FI sacrb
`f Sboardf ib` Bstfia y ib `f Fidhehstrfgh÷e ^úc`hgf, Wfethfka ib Gmh`b, 3>>2.
Iheh, Dfrgas y Jarkb Lftz, ‐Eubvfs oraetbrfs pfrf begfrfr `fs pa`äthgfs tbgea`÷khgfs.
B` gfsa ib Gmh`b—, Sbibs (Rehvbrshifi Efghaef` ib Vuh`dbs), 6>: 67-2=, 688;.Btgmbdbeiy, Wbcfsthfe y Sutm Ga``hbr, ‐Iawe cut eat Aut: Rehae Sbsurkbegbfei Wbkdbetbi Ebagarparfthsd he Frkbethef: 3>>7-3>>;—, ^a`hthgs fei Wa-
ghbty, 72 (7): 7?7-9>6, 3>>;.
Bvfes, ^btbr, Ihbtbr Subsgmbdbybr y Ymbif Wlapa` (bis.), Crhekhek tmb Wtftb
Cfgl He, Ebw Xarl y Gfdcrhikb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 68=2.
Of``bth, Yu`hf, ‐F Wbqubethf` Ymbary ao Ibgbetrf`hzfthae: @fthe Fdbrhgfe Gfsbshe Gadpfrfthvb ^brspbgthvb—, Fdbrhgfe ^a`ht hgf` Wghbegb Sbvhbw (88): 7: 73;-79?, 3>>2.
Ofeb``h, Jasè Dfräf, Sacbrta Orbelb` y Kuh``brda Sazbewurgb`, ‐Krawtm feiWtrugturf` Sboard he @fthe Fdbrhgf: ±[mbrb [b Wtfei1—, be [h``hfd Wdhtm,Gfr`as Fguöf y Biufria Kfdfrrf (Bis.) @fthe Fdbrhgfe ^a`ht hgf` Bgaeady
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
3>8
he tmb Fkb ao Eba`hcbrf` Sboard, Dhfdh, Yrfesfgthae ^uc`hsmbrs-Rehvbrshty aoDhfdh / Eartm-Waumt Gbetbr, 6889.
Oh`kubrf, Obrefeia, Gfr`as Kbrfria Da`hef, Jarkb ^fpfi÷pu`us y Obibrhga Yacfr,‐Rehvbrsf`hsda cæshga: uef f`tbrefthvf pashc`b y ebgbsfrhf pfrf dbjarfr `fsgaeihghaebs ib vhif—, be Gfr`as Kbrfria Da`hef (Bis.), Rehvbrsf`hsda cæshga.
Ref eubvf pa`äthgfs pfrf Fdèrhgf @fthef, [fsmhektae IG: Cfega Hetbrfdb-rhgfea ib Ibsfrra``a / Bihtarhf` ^`febtf, 3>>?.
Khcsae, Biwfri, ‐Ymb ^apu`hst Safi ta Dfrlbt Sboard: ^a`hgy fei B`bgtarf`Gaf`hthaes he Dbxhga fei Frkbethef—, [ar`i ^a`hthgs, 98 (7): 778-7;>, 688;.
Khcsae, Biwfri y Brebrta Gf`va, ‐Obibrf`hsd fei @aw-Dfhetbefegb Gaesth-tubeghbs: Ybrrhtar hf` Ihdbeshaes ao Bgaeadhg Sboard he Frkbethef—, Wtuihbs
he Gadpfrfthvb Hetbrefthaef` Ibvb`apdbet Sbvhbw, =? (3): 73-22, 3>>>.
Mffs, ^btbr D., ‐[mbe iabs pawbr `hstbe ta trutm1 F gaestrugthvhst fpprafgm tatmb pa`hgy pragbss—, Jauref` ao Burapbfe ^uc`hg ^a`hgy, 66 (9): 2?8-283, 3>>9.
Mb`dlb, Krbtgmbe, ‐Beiurhek Regbrtfhety: Gaurt-Bxbguthvb Sb`fthaes he Fr-kbethef Iurhek tmb 688>s fei Cbyaei—, be Wtbvb @bvhtsly y Dfräf _hgtarhfDurh``a (Bis.) Frkbetheb Ibdagrfgy: tmb ^a`ht hgs ao Hesthtut haef` [bflebss,^beesy`vfehf, ^beesy`vfehf Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>2.
Mucbr, Jame I., ‐Maw Iabs Gfchebt Hestfch`hty Foobgt ^a`hthgf` ^broardfegb1^artoa`ha _a`fth`hty fei Mbf`tm Gfrb Gast Gaetfhedbet he ^fr`hfdbetfry Ib-dagrfghbs—, Ymb Fdbrhgfe ^a`hthgf` Wghbegb Sbvhbw, 83 (7): 2;;-286, 688=.
Mukbs, Wf``y, ‐Ymb Sa` ao tmb @fthe Fdbrhgfe Ebws Dbihf he ^a`hgy Dflhek ^ra-gbss: f Ohrst @aal—, Yrfcfja prbpfrfia pfrf `f Gaevbegh÷e ib `f Fssaghfthae oar
Biugfthae he Jauref`hsd fei Dfss Gadduehgfthae, Wfe Fetaeha, Ybxfs, 3>>2.Hfgavb`a, Dbrgbibs, @furf Zuvfehg y Fef @furf Sairäkubz Kustæ, ‐Ymb [bflbst@hel: Ymb Curbfugrfgy fei Ghvh` Wbrvhgb Wystbds he @fthe Fdbrhgf—, be Gfr-`as Wgfrtfsgheh, Brebsta Wtbhe y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh (Bis.), Maw Ibdagrfgy
[arls: ^a`hthgf` Hesthtuthaes, Fgtars, fei Frbefs he @fthe Fdbrhgfe ^a`hgy-
dflhek, [fsmhektae IG: Ifvhi Saglbob``br Gbetbr oar @fthe Fdbrhgfe Wtu-ihbs / Mfrvfri Rehvbrshty, 3>6>.
Hfrygazawbr, Dftäfs, ^fc`a Wph``br y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh, ‐Ymb Wuprbdb Gaurt—,be ^fc`a Whph``br y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh (Bis.), Ymb Hesthtuthaef` Oaueifthaes ao
^uc`hg ^a`hgy: F Yrfesfgthaes Ymbary fei Fpp`hgfthaes ta Frkbethef , Gfd-
cr hikb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>;.Hsufeh, F`ia, ‐B` Bstfia ib Chbebstfr Frkbethea: ue räkhia chbe iurfc`b—, Cubeas
Fhrbs, (Dhdba), 3>>2.
Jfhdb, Obrefeia y Oè`hx Wfcftè, ‐Fkbeif ib hevbrsh÷e saghf` ib `f Cfegf Du`th`f-tbrf` ib Ibsfr ra``a be Fdèrhgf @fthef: ib `as oaeias ib hevbrsh÷e saghf` f `as
prakrfdfs ib trfesobrbeghf ib hekrbsa gaeihghaef`bs,—, ^acrbzf y Ibsfrra``a
Waghf`. (Hetbrefthaef` Hesthtutb oar Bevhraedbet fei ibvb`apdbet, HHBI-F@),6> (39): 666-639, 3>>9.
Jaebs, Dfrl, ‐^a`hthgf` Hesthtut haes, ^a`hthgf` G`bfvbkbs fei Gfeihiftb Gadpbth-
thae he ^rbshibeghf` B`bgthae—, Dhgmhkfe Wtftb Rehvbrshty, Dhdba, 3>>6.Jaebs, Dfrl, ‐Ymb Sbgruhtdbet fei Wb`bgthae ao @bkhs`fthvb Gfeihiftbs he Fr-
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
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kbethef—, be ^btbr Whfvb`hs y Wgatt Darkbestbre (Bis.) ^ftmwfy ta ^awbr: ^a`h-thgf` Sbgruhtdbet fei Gfeihiftb Wb`bgthae he @fthe Fdbrhgf, Rehvbrshty ^frl,^bee Wtftb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>9.
Jaebs, Dfrl, ‐Ymb ra`b ao pfrthbs fei pfrty systbds he tmb pa`hgy dflhek pra-gbss—, Iagudbeta prbpfrfia pfrf b` Hetbr-Fdbrhgfe Ibvb`apdbet Cfel [ar-
lsmap ae Wtftb Sboard, ^uc`hg ^a`hghbs, fei ^a`hgy dflhek ^ragbssbs , [fs-mhektae IG: Hetbr-Fdbrhgfe Ibvb`apdbet Cfel., 3>>2.
Jaebs, Dfrl, Asvf`ia Db`aeh y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh, ‐_atbrs fs Ohsgf` @hcbrf`s—,Rehvbrshifi ib Wfe Feirès, Dhdba, 3>>;,
@bgmebr, Earcbrt, ‐Yrbs oardfs ib gaarihefgh÷e saghf`—, Sbvhstf ib `f GB^F@ (Efghaebs Rehifs), ?6: ;-6;, 688;.
@bhrfs, Dfrgb`a, ‐@f arkfehzfgh÷e pfrthifrhf y su heo `ubeghf sacrb `f gf`hifi ibkachbrea be `f Frkbethef fgtuf`: `÷khgf, prac`bdfs y rboardfs ebgbsfrhfs—,
Iagudbeta ib trfcfja E¾ 3>>?->>3, Cubeas Fhrbs, Oueifgh÷e ^BEY, 3>>?.
@bvhesly, Wtbvbe, ‐Orad ^apu`hsd ta G`hbetb`hsd1 Ymb Yrfesoardfthaes ao ^fr-ty-@fcar @helfkbs he @fthe Fdbrhgf, be Mbrcbrt Lhtsgmb`t y Wtbvbe [h`lbrsae(Bis.) ^ftraes a ^a`hghbs1 Ghthzbe ^a`hthghfe @helfkbs he Ibdagrfthg ^a`hthgs,Gfdcrhikb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>;.
@aia`f, Kbrdæe, ‐Kachbrea Efghaef`, kacbrefiarbs b hetbeibetbs be b` pbräaialhrgmebr hstf—, be Feirès Df`fdui y Dhkub` ib @ugf (Gaari.) @f pa`äthgf be
thbdpas ib `as Lhrgmebr , Cubeas Fhrbs, Buibcf, 3>66.
@a _ua`a, Sucèe, ‐Bgaeadäf pa`äthgf ib` bstfia ib chbebstfr: dhta`akäf eba`hcb-rf` y lbyebshfehsda papu`hstf—, be Brebsta Hsufeh, Sucèe @a _ua`a y Bdh`ha
Ybeth Ofeofeh, B` Bstfia Cbebofgtar. Re pfrfihkdf be grhshs, Cubeas Fhrbs,GHB^^ / Dhöa y Iævh`f, 6886.
Dfee, Dhgmfb`, @fs oubetbs ib` paibr saghf`. _a`udbe HH , Dfirhi, F`hfezf Bih-tarhf`, 688;.
Dfrtäebz Eakubhrf, Sacbrta, ‐@f Gambrbeghf y `f gaarihefgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: fspbgtas gaegbptuf`bs y bxpbrhbeghfs—, be Ibsfoäas ib `f gaarih-
efgh÷e y `f hetbkrhifi ib `fs pa`äthgfs y kbsth÷e púc`hgf be Fdèrhgf @fthef,Cubeas Fhrbs, Jbofturf ib Kfchebtbs ib Dhehstras, 3>6>.
Dfhewfrhek, Wgatt y Yhdatmy Wgu``y. 6882. ‐Hetraiugthae: ^fr ty Wystbds he @f-the Fdbrhgf.— Be Wgatt Dfhewfrhek y Yhdatmy Wgu``y (Bis.) Cuh`ihek Ibda-
grfthg Hesthtuthaes: ^frty Wystbds he @fthe Fdbrhgf. Wtfeoari GF: WtfeoariRehvbrshty ^rbss.
Dfhewfrhek, Wgatt y Dfttmbw W. Wmukfrt, ^rbshibethf`hsd fei Ibdagrfgy he
@fthe Fdbrhgf, Gfdcrhikb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 688;.
DgGucches, Dfttmbw, Sakbr Ea`` y Cfrry [bhekfst, ‐Wtrugturb fei ^ragbss,^a`hthgs fei ^a`hgy: Fidhehst rfthvb Frrfekbdbets fei tmb ^a`hthgf` Gaetra` aoFkbeghbs—, _hrkhehf @fw Sbvhbw, ;2 (3): 976-9=3, 68=8.
DgGucches, Dftmbw I. y Ymadfs Wgmwrtz, ‐Gaekrbsshaef` Avbrshkmt Avbr-`aalbi: ^a`hgb ^ftra`s vbrsus Ohrb F`frds—, Fdbrhgfe Jauref` ao ^a`ht hgf`
Wghbegb, 3= (6): 6?-;8, 68=9.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
366
Dbsf-@fka, Gfrdb`a, ‐Waghf` Wbgurhty fei ^raspbgts oar Bquhty he @fthe Fdb-rhgf—, [ar`i Cfel Ihsgusshae ^fpbrs, 69>. [fsmhektae, [ar`i Cfel, 6886.
Durh``a, Dfräf _hgtarhf, ‐^frthsfesmhp fdhist Gaevbrkbegb: @fcar Dfrlbt Sb-oards he @fthe Fdbrhgf—, Gadpfrfthvb ^a`hthgs, 7; (9): 996-92=, 3>>2.
Durh``a, Dfräf _hgtarhf, ‐@f oartf`bzf hest htughaef` frkbethef be 3>>7-3>66—, beFeirès Df`fdui y Dhkub` ib @ugf (Gaari.) @f pa`äthgf be thbdpas ib `as
Lhrgmebr Cubeas Fhrbs, Buibcf, 3>66.
A‘Iaeeb``, Kuh``brda, B` Bstfia Curagræt hga Futarhtfrha. Yrhueoa, Ibrratfs,
Grhshs, Cubeas Fhrbs, Bihtarhf` Cb`krfea, 68=3.
A‘Iaeeb``, Kuh``brda, ‐Ib`bkfthvb Ibdagrfgy—, Jauref` ao Ibdagrfgy, 2 (6):22-?8, 6889.
A‘Iaeeb``, Kuh` `brda, ‐Fgbrgf ib` Bstfia, `f ibdagrfthzfgh÷e y f`kueas prac`b-dfs gaegbptuf`bs. Ref pbrspbgthvf `ftheafdbrhgfef gae rbobrbeghf f pfäsbsgaduehstfs—, be Kuh``brda A‘Iaeeb``, Gaetrfpuetas. Besfyas bsgakhias sa-
crb futarhtfrhsda y daibrehzfgh÷e, Cubeas Fhrbs, ^fhi÷s, 688;.Asz`fl, Asgfr, ‐B` dhta ib` bstfia däehda: uef iègfif ib rboardf bstftf` be
Frkbethef—, Ibsfrra``a Bgae÷dhga, 93 (6?=): 268-297, 3>>7.
Asz`fl, Asgfr y Kuh``brda A‘Iaeeb``, Bstfia y pa`äthgfs bstftf`bs be Fdèrhgf
@fthef: mfghf uef bstrftbkhf ib hevbst hkfgh÷e, Iagudbeta K.B. G@FGWA (9),Cubeas Fhrbs, Gbetra ib Bstuihas ib Bstfia y Waghbifi (GBIBW), 68;?.
^btbrs, C. Kuy, B` eubva hest htughaef`hsda. Ybaräf hesthtughaef` be ghbeghf pa`ä-
thgf, Cfrgb`aef, Kbihsf Bihtarhf`, 3>>7.
^a`feyh, Lfr`, @f krfe trfesoardfgh÷e. @as aräkbebs pa`äthgas y bgae÷dhgas ib
eubstra thbdpa, Dèxhga, Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf, 6883.Sbpbtta, Ofchfe, ‐Gaarihefgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs: fcarifjb gaegbptuf` y rbvhsh÷e ib
`fs bxpbrhbeghfs @ftheafdbrhgfefs— ^aebeghf prbsbetfif be b` ]H_ Gaekrbsa
ib` G@FI sacrb `f Sboardf ib` Bstfia y `f Fidhehstrfgh÷e ^úc`hgf, Wfe Wf`-vfiar ib Cfmäf, Crfsh`, Agtucrb 3>>8.
Sbyeasa, Ihbka, _atas ^aeibrfias. Whstbdfs b`bgtarf`bs y sacrbrbprbsbetfgh÷eihstr htf`, Dèxhga IO: O@FGWA / Dhkub` Æekb` ^arrúf, 3>>9.
Shlbr, [h``hfd, ‐Obibrf`hsd—, be Orbi Krbbestbhe y Eb`sae ^a`scy (Bis.) Mfei-
caal ao ^a`hthgf` Wghbegb,Dfssfgmusbtt: Fiihsae-[bs`by ^uc. Ga., 68;2.
Wfcfta, Jarkb. O., @f g`fsb iadhefetb be `f Frkbet hef daibref, Cubeas Fhrbs,GHWBF / Krupa Bihtar @ftheafdbrhgfea, 68==.
Wfetas, [feibr`by Kuh`mbrdb Ias, Sfzabs if ibsaribe, Sha ib Jfebhra, Sugga, 6886.
Wgfrtfegheh, Gfr`as, ^fc`a Wph``br, Brebsta Wtbhe y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh, ‐G÷da sb jubkfbe Fdèrhgf @fthef. Hesthtughaebs pa`äthgfs, pragbsas ib ebkaghfgh÷e y pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs—, be Gfr`as Wgfrtfegheh , ^fc`a Wph``br, Brebsta Wtbhe y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh(Bis.) B` jubka pa`äthga be Fdèrhgf @fthef ±G÷da sb ibghibe `fs pa`äthgfs púc`h-
gfs1, Cakatæ, Cfega Hetbrfdbrhgfea ib Ibsfrra``a / Dfya` Bihghaebs, 3>66.
Wfcfthbr, ^fu` y Mfel G. Jhelhes-Wdhtm, ‐Ymb Fivagfgy Gaf`hthaes Orfdbwarls:
Fe Fssbssdbet—, be ^fu` Wfcfthbr (Bi.) Ymbarhbs ao ^a`hgy ^ragbss, Cau`ibr,Ga`: [bstvhbw ^rbss, 6888.
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Wfhbkm, Wbcfsthæe, ‐Ymb Sa`b ao @bkhs`fturbs he tmb ^a`hgydflhek ^ragbss—, [ar-
ls upae Wtftb Sboard, ^uc`hg ^a`hghbs fei ^a`hgydflhek ^ragbssbs, [fsmhek-tae IG: Hetbr-Fdbrhgfe Ibvb`apdbet Cfel, 3>>2.
Wgmebhibr, Cbe Sas, ‐Cushebss, ^a`hthgs fei ^a`hgy Dflhek he Gaetbdparfry@fthe Fdbrhgf—, Iagudbeta prbpfrfia pfrf b` Hetbr-Fdbrhgfe Ibvb`ap-
dbet Cfel [arlsmap ae Wtftb Sboard, ^uc`hg ^a`hghbs, fei ^a`hgy dflhek^ragbssbs,[fsmhektae IG: Hetbr-Fdbrhgfe Ibvb`apdbet Cfel, 3>>2.
Wmukfrt, Dfttmbw y Jame D. Gfrby, ^rbshibets fei Fssbdc`hbs. Gaesthtuthaef`
Ibshke fei B`bgtarf` Iyefdhgs, Eubvf Xarl, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss,6883.
Whllhel, Lftmrye, ‐@fs gfpfghifibs y `f futaeadäf ib` bstfia be Crfsh` y `fFrkbethef. Re beoaqub ebahesthtughaef`hstf—. Ibsfrra``a Bgae÷dhga, 73 (63=):297-2;9, 6887.
Wph``br, ^fc`a y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh, Ymb Hesthtut haef` Oaueifthaes ao ^uc`hg ^a`h-
gy he Frkbethef. F Yrfesfgthaes Fpprafgm, Gfdcrhikb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty^rbss, 3>>;.
Wtbhe, Brebsta, Dfrhfea Yaddfsh, La`ia Bgmbcfrräf, Biufria @arf y Dfrl ^f-yeb, @f pa`äthgf ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, [fsmhektae, IG: Cfega Hetbrfdb-rhgfea ib Ibsfr ra``a / Ifvhi Saglbob``br Gbetbr oar @fthe Fdbrhgfe Wtuihbs /Mfrvfri Rehvbrshty, 3>>;.
Yaddfsh, Dfrhfea, ‐Obibrf`hsd he Frkbethef fei tmb Sboards ao tmb 688>s—, beJbsshgf [f``fgl y Y. E. Wrhehvfsfe (Bis.) Obibrf`hsd fei Bgaeadhg Sboard.
Hetbrefthaef` ^brspbgthvbs, Gfdcrhikb, Gfdcrhikb Rehvbrshty ^rbss, 3>>?.
Yarrb, Jufe Gfr`as, ‐@as mubrofeas ib `f pa`äthgf ib pfrt hias. Wacrb `as f`gfegbsy efturf`bzf ib `f grhshs ib rbprbsbetfgh÷e pfrthifrhf—, Ibsfrra``a Bgae÷dhga,93 (6?=): ?9;-??2, 3>>7.
Ysbcb`hs, Kbarkb, ‐@f tadf ib ibghshaebs be `as shstbdfs pa`äthgas. Fgtarbs ibvbta be b` prbshibeghf`hsda, pfr`fdbetfrhsda, du`thgfdbrf`hsda y du`thpfrt h-ihsda—, be Wbcfsthæe Wfhbkm y Dfrhfea Yaddfsh (Gadps.), @f eubvf bgaea-
däf pa`äthgf: rfghaef`hifi b hesthtughaebs, Cubeas Fhrbs, Buibcf, 688=.
[bhr, Dfrkfrbt y Ymbif Wlagpa`, ‐@fs bstrugturfs ib` Bstfia: uef rbspubstf «lb-yebshfef¼ f `f Krfe Ibprbsh÷e—, Zaef Fchbrtf , ?7-?9: ;7-627, 6887.
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GF^ÄYR@A _HHH. @f p`fehgfgh÷e y bvf`ufgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs
6. Hetraiuggh÷e. 3. @f p`fehgfgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. 3.6. @as da-dbetas ib `f p`fehgfgh÷e. 3.3. @f p`fehgfgh÷e eardfthvf y `f p`fehgfgh÷e
bstrftèkhgf. 3.7. Ihstheghaebs betrb `fs pf`fcrfs p`fe, prakrfdf y praybgta.3.9. ^a`äthgf y ^`fehgfgh÷e. 7. @f bvf`ufgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. 7.6.Crbvb mhstarhf ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e. 7.3. Re daib`a hetbkrf` ib bvf`ufgh÷e ib
pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. 7.7. @f trfesvbrsf`hifi ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e: dhrfif hetbkrfifib` kachbrea y `f kbsth÷e. 7.9. @f bvf`ufgh÷e, su rb`fgh÷e gae `f dbjarf ib `fkbsth÷e púc`hgf y b` ra` ib` Bstfia. 9. Be rbsudbe.
6. HEYSAIRGGH×E
Bstb ú`thda gfpätu`a trftf sacrb g÷da `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sb gaevhbrtbe be fggha-
ebs ib` Bstfia y ib què oardf sb vf`arf su hdp`bdbetfgh÷e.
Gfif fggh÷e qub bdprbeibdas `fs pbrsaefs thbeb f`ka ib p`fehgfgh÷e y ib bvf-
`ufgh÷e. B` sbr mudfea p`fehgf y bvf`úf gfsh taifs `fs fgthvhifibs qub rbf`hzf. Ref
fgthvhifi tfe shdp`b gada hr f` gheb hdp`hgf qub fef`hgbdas uef sbrhb ib gubsthaebs:
què pb`ägu`f vfdas f vbr, be què gheb, be què marfrha, gae quhèe hrbdas, guæeta
gastfræ `f betrfif, quhèe `f pfkfrf, be què vbmägu`a ``bkfrbdas, y f què marf ib-
cbdas sf`hr pfrf ``bkfr f marfrha, betrb atrfs ‐prbkuetfs— qub ibcbdas rbspaeibr
pfrf paibr gudp`hr gae eubstra acjbthva ib vbr uef pb`ägu`f. @ubka, fuequb quhzæs
ib dfebrf hegaesghbetb, tbeirbdas ihobrbetbs aphehaebs sacrb sh f pb`ägu`f eas kus-
t÷ a ea, sh sfthsza `fs bxpbgtfthvfs qub tbeäfdas, sh b`bkhdas b` gheb y `f ouegh÷egarrbgtf, sh be rbf`hifi eas mbdas kfstfia dæs ihebra ib qub gaevbeäf, sh mbdas
b`bkhia f `f pbrsaef fibgufif pfrf hr, sh `as pagmag`as bstfcfe cubeas a sae db-
jarbs be atra gheb… pbesfdhbetas qub thbebe qub vbr gae vf`arfr eubstrf ibghsh÷e y
fggh÷e ib hr f` gheb.
@fs fgghaebs ib` Bstfia tfdpaga agurrbe ib purf gfsuf`hifi. @fs oardfs y da-
ias be `as guf`bs sb ``bvfe fib`fetb `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, rbbrbe f fgghaebs ib
p`fehgfgh÷e y shbdprb, ib uef oardf a ib atrf, `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs sae bvf`ufifs.
^ar supubsta, `f p`fehgfgh÷e y bvf`ufgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, hdp`hgf ue be-
tarea ib sfcbrbs y prægthgfs ue tfeta dæs gadp`bjfs qub hr f` gheb. ^bra f `a `frka
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ib` gfpätu`a, vfdas f vbr qub `as gadpaebetbs ea vfräfe ibdfshfia, y qub quhzæs,
p`fehgfr y bvf`ufr uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf bs dbeas gadp`bja ib g÷da `a prbsbetfe
dugmas futarbs. Yaia ibpbeib ib `f gfpfghifi qub tbekfdas pfrf gadprbeibr `f
rbf`hifi, y p`fetbfreas fgghaebs y oardfs ib hetbrvbehr be b``f qub sbfe vhfc`bs.
Yf` gada fgfcfdas ib bxprbsfr, `fs pa`äthgfs sb p`fehgfe y bvf`úfe shbdprb.
Fmarf, bstf prægthgf sb rbf`hzf ib oardf duy ihobrbetb, gae krfias ib shstbdfthzf-
gh÷e, rfghaef`hzfgh÷e, hiaebhifi, pbrthebeghf y pfrthghpfgh÷e ihobrbetbs.
^rbghsfdbetb trftfrbdas sacrb `fs ibehghaebs ib p`fehgfgh÷e y bvf`ufgh÷e qub
gaeshibrfdas dæs fpraphfifs, gada fsä tfdchèe `as prheghpf`bs thpas, dadbetas,
gfrfgtbrästhgfs y oardfs qub fdcfs fgghaebs hdp`hgfe.
^aibdas pbesfr qub bstb gfpätu`a bs uef chsfkrf duy hdpartfetb, yf qub eas
pbrdhtb frthgu`fr `as sfcbrbs gaestruhias be `as gfpätu`as fetbrharbs (sacrb b` Bstfiay su rb`fgh÷e gae `f saghbifi, sacrb `as daib`as ib fef`hzfr `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs,
sacrb su rb`fgh÷e gae `f pa`äthgf, sacrb `as fgtarbs qub hetbrvhbebe, btg.), gae `f præg-
thgf ib `f fggh÷e púc`hgf be sä dhsdf.
Fibdæs, pubib rbsu`tfr hetbrbsfetb qub fsudfdas bstb gfpätu`a gada ue pueta
ib hebxh÷e betrb `as sfcbrbs yf trfcfjfias, y `fs hetbrvbeghaebs gaegrbtfs qub us-
tbibs sb hdfkhefe rbf`hzfr gada praobshaef`bs.
Fetbs ib gadbezfr b` trftfdhbeta bspbgäga ib gfif uea ib `as ias tbdfs, fg`f -
rfdas qub `as prbsbetfdas par sbpfrfia shdp`bdbetb pfrf qub rbsu`tb dæs oægh` sugadprbesh÷e y feæ`hshs, pbra qub be `f prægthgf, `f p`fehgfgh÷e y `f bvf`ufgh÷e sae
ias gaejuetas ib ibghshaebs y fgghaebs pfrtb ib` dhsda pragbsa.
3. @f p`fehgfgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs
Gadbezfrbdas gae uef ibehgh÷e ib p`fehgfgh÷e praphf ib` futar gmh`bea Gfr -
`as Dftus, ga`fcarfiar y oueghaefrha ib` prbshibetb Wf`vfiar F``beib, quhbe gubetf
gae vfrhas tbxtas sacrb p`fehgfgh÷e, praiughbeia duy vf`hasas fpartbs f f dftbrhf,
`hkfeia f f tfrbf ib p`fehgfr gae b` marhzaetb ib sbethia qub f pa`äthgf b hdprhdb.
Dftus ibsgrhch÷ f ‐`f p`fehgfgh÷e gada uef iheædhgf ib gæ`gu`a qub prbgbib y
prbshib `f fggh÷e, qub ea gbsf euegf, qub bs ue pragbsa gaetheua qub fgadpföf `f
rbf`hifi gfdchfetb— (Dftus, 68=8).
B` tbrdhea p`fehgfgh÷e mfgb rbobrbeghf f f gaestruggh÷e gaetheuf y gadp`bjf ib
väfs ib fggh÷e, qub pubibe sbr bxprbsfifs be p`febs, prakrfdfs a praybgtas.
Rea ib `as prhdbras ibsfoäas qub begaetrfdas f` trftfr b` tbdf p`fehgfgh÷e, bs`hkfr bstb pragbsa f `f rbf`hifi pashc`b y vhfc`b, y ea shdp`bdbetb f `f oardu`fgh÷e
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ib ‐hibf`bs— a ‐bxprbshaebs ib ibsba—, qub sa`a pubibe qubifr gufeta dugma chbe
rbifgtfifs be ue tbxta, pbra qub efif eas fpartfræ pfrf trfesoardfr `f rbf`hifi saghf .
@f p`fehgfgh÷e fibdæs thbeb qub sbr betbeihif gada ue ‐gaetheua—, p`fehgfr
ea bs gaestruhr ibtbrdhefifs `äebfs ib fggh÷e be ue dadbeta ibtbrdhefia, shea qub
hdp`hgf ue pragbsa gaestfetb, qub fgadpföf f` ibsfrra``a ib `f fggh÷e púc`hgf.@as ibsfrra``as sacrb `f p`fehgfgh÷e fp`hgfias f` Bstfia, oubrae rbf`hzfias hetbe-
sfdbetb sacrb taia iurfetb `as föas ib paskubrrf mfstf `as =>, prheghpf`dbetb par `as
pfäsbs saghf`hstf y f`kueas pfäsbs burapbas pfrf su rbgaestruggh÷e `ubka ib f kubrrf.
@fs garrhbetbs ib pbesfdhbeta sacrb p`fehgfgh÷e ib bstfs iègfifs, tuvhbrae su
hdpfgta be Fdèrhgf @fthef, kbebrfeia ue gaejueta ib tbaräfs y bxpbrhbeghfs qub
gaeoardfe `a qub sb mf ``fdfia ‐p`fehgfgh÷e eardfthvf—, guyf gfrfgtbrästhgf prhe-
ghpf` mf shia `f ib pbesfr qub `f rbf`hifi pubib sbr fcarifif ‐ibsib oubrf—, gadauef ‐gasf bstæthgf—, p`fushc`b ib daihgfgh÷e she gaehgtas.
Gada rbsu`tfia ib` orfgfsa ib bstf oardf ib fcarifr `f p`fehgfgh÷e, sb ibsfrra-
``a be `fs iègfifs shkuhbetbs ihobrbetbs fvfegbs mfghf uef vhsh÷e ‐bstrftèkhgf— ib `f
p`fehgfgh÷e.
@f vhsh÷e bstrftèkhgf ib f p`fehgfgh÷e, thbeb qub vbr gae f gfpfghifi ib heg`uhr
be b` pragbsa ib p`fehgfgh÷e f `as fgtarbs saghf`bs qub sb begubetrfe be rb`fgh÷e f
`f ‐shtufgh÷e— qub bstfdas p`fehgfeia.
Fsä gada f efihb sb `b agurrhräf ``bvfr f` gheb f uef pbrsaef she heva`ugrfr`f be`fs ibghshaebs qub sae ebgbsfrhfs tadfr (què pb`ägu`f vbr, gufeia hr, btg.), tfdchèe
rbsu`tf ibobgtuasa hetbetfr p`fehgfr `f rbsa`ugh÷e ib ue prac`bdf saghf` ibtbrdhef-
ia she heg`uhr f `as prheghpf`bs heva`ugrfias be bsf shtufgh÷e.
Gfr`as Dftus, betrb atras, mf trfcfjfia sacrb `as acstægu`as prbsbetbs betrb b`
p`fe y as sujbtas f as guf`bs b` p`fe hdpfgtf, ibstfgfeia qub ue p`fe ea pubib fsb-
kurfr qub `a bsgrhta bs ibtbrdhefetb ib `a qub agurrhræ, y qub betaegbs bs ebgbsfrha
tbebr shbdprb prbsbetb b` gadpaebetb ib hdprbvhshch`hifi ib `f rbf`hifi y b` ibvbehrsaghf`.
Xf be b` dfrga ib hetbrvbegh÷e f`hdbetfia par `f p`fehgfgh÷e bstrftèkhgf, iu-
rfetb b` föas 688>, tfeta `as ibsfrra``as iagudbetf`bs y `f prægthgf gaegrbtf ib `f
p`fehgfgh÷e be Fdèrhgf @fthef suorhbrae ue gfdcha shkehgfthva: sb trfs`fi÷ f`
ædchta `agf` y oub vf`arfif y f`betfif sa`a be bsf bsgf`f. Wb fcfeiaefrae ihsgursas
qub f`uihbrfe f` ibsfrra``a efghaef`, surkh÷ gae oubrzf `f p`fehgfgh÷e bstrftèkhgf
`agf` y sb ibsfrra``÷ uef fdp`hf y vfrhfif chc`hakrfoäf sacrb `f dftbrhf, dhbetrfs sb
bsgrhcäf paga sacrb `f p`fehgfgh÷e f ehvb` pravheghf` a efghaef`.
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Wh chbe bstb oaga ib `f p`fehgfgh÷e ihrhkhia mfghf `a `agf`, ibsftbeihbeia b`
ehvb` efghaef` ib kachbrea apbra be taif `f rbkh÷e, be `f Frkbethef tuva uef rb-
pbrgush÷e duy oubrtb.
Gada pfrtb ib bstb obe÷dbea, b` dueia fgfièdhga sb fcag÷ bspbghf`dbetb f`
ædchta `agf`. Wb mfe bstuihfia y ihoueihia bxpbrhbeghfs qub heg`usa mfe ifia arh-kbe f bsgub`fs y grhtbrhas ib p`fehgfgh÷e y kbsth÷e.
@ubka ib `f grhshs ib` föa 3>>6, be `f Frkbethef gadbezfrae f gfdchfr `as
dfrgas ib ihsgush÷e be tarea f `f p`fehgfgh÷e f ehvb` efghaef`, bstfc`bghèeiasb
bjbs ib frthgu`fgh÷e b hetbkrfgh÷e ib acjbthvas ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs f ehvb` ef-
ghaef`, oueififs be uef vhsh÷e sacrb b` outura qub sb quhbrb gaestruhr gada pfäs.
Bstas bjbs ihbrae `ukfr f krfeibs pa`äthgfs y prakrfdfs, qub gaeoardfe ue p`fe
ib ibsfrra``a gae oubrtb frrfhka be `f hetbrrb`fgh÷e ib` Bstfia Efgh÷e gae `asibdæs pfäsbs ib `f rbkh÷e.
_a`vhbeia f` shkehgfia ib `f p`fehgfgh÷e, be tèrdheas ib` g÷da mfgbr , dæs
qub be b` ibcbr sbr ib `f dftbrhf, begaetrfdas `f shkuhbetb rbbxh÷e qub eas pubib
fyuifr: ‐Gufeia sb mfc`f ib p`fehgfgh÷e, she tbebr ehekuef prbagupfgh÷e par uth-
`hzfr b` tèrdhea gae taia rhkar ghbetäga, shbdprb sb fsaghf f `f hibf ib arkfehzfr,
aribefr, gaarihefr, prbvbr... Wh sb fmaeif f`ka dæs be bstb gaegbpta, bstæ g`fra qub
`f hibf gbetrf` qub fpfrbgb bs f ib jfr gursas ib fggh÷e gae b` prap÷shta ib f`gfezfr
ibtbrdhefias acjbthvas, dbihfetb b` usa bghbetb ib `as dbihas. Wb trftf ib ‐mfgbr
qub agurrfe gasfs qub, ib atra daia, ea mfcräfe agurrhia—, a ib ‐grbfr f`tbrefthvfs,
f``ä iaeib fetbs ea mfcäf efif— (Cbrefzzf, 3>>9).
Wh pbesfdas be `f p`fehgfgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, fpfrbgbræe pf`fcrfs
gada acjbthvas, rbgursas, rbspaesfch`hifibs, bquhpas ib trfcfja, gursas ib fggh÷e,
pbrsaefs heva`ugrfifs, f`tbrefthvfs, dbihas y rbsu`tfias betrb atrfs.
Gada oardf hetraiugtarhf ib fkrupfgh÷e ib bstas gaegbptas, qub `ubka sbræe
fcarifias par `fs ihobrbetbs `bgturfs prapubstfs par `f gætbirf, paibdas beueghfrf`kueas ib `as dadbetas y fspbgtas qub gaesthtuybe `f tfrbf ib p`fehgfr.
Bs hdpartfetb tbebr be gubetf qub bstfs fgghaebs ea sae `fs úehgfs, eh sb ife ib
oardf tfe `hebf`, pbra eas fyuifræe f ibjfr p`fetbfia b` tbdf be bstb dfeuf`.
Yf` gada ibehbrf Dfrtäebz Eakubhrf f` rbobrhrsb f `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, `f p`f-
ehgfgh÷e pubib betbeibrsb gada ue pragbsa `hebf` y sbgubeghf` sa`a pfrf su feæ-
`hshs, yf qub be `f rbf`hifi fpfrbgb gada ue fgghaefr iheædhga sujbta f fgghaebs
y rbfgghaebs, f gaesbesas y gaehgtas betrf `as ihvbrsas fgtarbs qub hetbrvhbebe
(Dfrtäebz Eakubhrf, 688;).
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3.6. @as dadbetas ib `f p`fehgfgh÷e
Dftus (68=;) p`fetbf qub be b` pragbsa ib p`fehgfgh÷e mfy 9 dadbetas. @as `fdf da-
dbetas, ihobrbeghæeia`as ib fs ‐btfpfs— trfihghaef`bs ib` vhbja pfrfihkdf. Bstas sae:
Dadbeta bxp`hgfthva. Dadbeta eardfthva.
Dadbeta bstrftèkhga.
Dadbeta tægthga-apbrfghaef`.
B` dadbeta bxp`hgfthva bs fqub` be qub b` fgtar qub p`fehgf bstæ pbrdfebetb-
dbetb heifkfeia sacrb `fs apartuehifibs y prac`bdfs qub beorbetf, b hetbetfeia
bxp`hgfrsb `fs gfusfs qub `a kbebrfe.
B` dadbeta eardfthva bs fqub` be b` guf` b` fgtar qub p`fehgf ihsböf g÷da
ibcb sbr `f rbf`hifi a `f shtufgh÷e. Bstb dadbeta bs b` qub `f p`fehgfgh÷e trfih-ghaef` gaeoueih÷ gae `f tatf`hifi ib `f p`fehgfgh÷e, pfrf tbrdhefr hibethgfeia
p`fehgfgh÷e gae ihsböa. ^frf Dftus `a eardfthva bs sa`a ue dadbeta ib` pragbsa
ib p`fehgfgh÷e, fqub` dadbeta ib ihsböa qub sb dubvb be b` p`fea ib` ‐ibcbr sbr—.
B` dadbeta bstrftèkhga bs b` ib `f gaestruggh÷e ib `f vhfch`hifi. B` fgtar qub
p`fehgf sb prbkuetf: ±g÷da pubia gaestruhr`b vhfch`hifi f dh ihsböa eardfthva1,
±què acstægu`as ibca vbegbr y g÷da `as pubia vbegbr pfrf qub dh ihsböa ib` ibcbr
sbr sb begfreb be `f rbf`hifi gada uef oubrzf bobgthvf ib gfdcha mfghf `f shtufgh÷eb`bkhif gada acjbthva1, ±g÷da b` ihsböa qub bstæ be b` pfpb` a be eubstrfs gfcbzfs
pubib gaevbrthrsb be davhdhbeta rbf` ib `f shtufgh÷e1
Fquä fpfrbgbe ‐acstægu`as— pa`äthgas, bgae÷dhgas, gu`turf`bs, arkfehzfthvas,
gakeasghthvas, `bkf`bs, btg. Vuhbe p`fehgf ea sa`a ibcb ihsböfr gada ibcbe sbr `fs
gasfs, shea qub tfdchèe ibcb mfgbr ue gæ`gu`a ib g÷da sartbfr `as acstægu`as qub sb
apaebe f` gudp`hdhbeta ib bsb ihsböa.
B` dadbeta tægthga-apbrfghaef` bs b` dadbeta ibghshva parqub `as atras da-
dbetas thbebe uef úehgf uth`hifi: gaesthtuhrsb be ue gæ`gu`a pfrf `f fggh÷e, be uegæ`gu`a qub prbgbib y prbshib `f fggh÷e. Whe bdcfrka, bs heihspbesfc`b gf`gu`fr bx-
p`arfeia dæs f``æ ib` prbsbetb pfrf ifr`b rfghaef`hifi f eubstrfs ibghshaebs ib may<
pbra, f` ef`, juzkfrbdas `f p`fehgfgh÷e par `f oardf be qub bsb gæ`gu`a bs gfpfz
ib f`tbrfr, gaeiughr y arhbetfr `fs fgghaebs prbsbetbs.
Bstb gæ`gu`a bs b` gbetra ib` dadbeta tægthga-apbrfghaef` y thbeb gada acjbta arhbe-
tfr gfif pfsa qub ibdas be b` iäf f iäf y bvf`ufr`a be rb`fgh÷e f f shtufgh÷e-acjbthva, ea
sa`a pfrf gaestftfr f fpraxhdfgh÷e f`gfezfif rbspbgta f b``f, shea tfdchèe pfrf rbvhsfr-`f gada kuäf qub sbkuhræ prbgbihbeia y prbshihbeia eubstras pfsas shkuhbetbs.
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@f rbf`hifi sb gaestruyb be b` prbsbetb. @as rbsu`tfias qub actbebdas be f rbf`hifi sae
ue praiugta ib bsas pfsas qub ifdas be b` iäf f iäf, ea gubetfe as p`febs qub shdp`bdbe-
tb pbesfdas a ihsböfdas, sa`a pbsfe fqub``as qub prbgbibe y prbshibe eubstras pfsas.
Bstas dadbetas ib f p`fehgfgh÷e gadprbeibe uef sbrhb ib fgthvhifibs qub sb prb-
sbetfe ib oardf shetèthgf f gaetheufgh÷e, gae b` prap÷shta ib vhsuf`hzfr b` pragbsaib `f p`fehgfgh÷e:
Ibehgh÷e ib` marhzaetb pa`äthga saghf` f gaestruhr : be prhdbr `ukfr, fetbs qub `f
fp`hgfgh÷e ib guf`quhbr tbgea`akäf ib kbsth÷e, sbræ ebgbsfrha ibehr `a `hebfdhbetas
pa`äthga (bstrftèkhgas qub ife arhkbe y sustbetfe f` p`fe). B` praybgta ib pfäs be
gaestruggh÷e, `f rb`fgh÷e betrb `fs ihobrbetbs pa`äthgfs, `f shtufgh÷e bstrftèkhgf ib`
pfäs be rb`fgh÷e f `as pfäsbs ib `f rbkh÷e, b` bstuiha ib oubrzfs ib paibr f`hfifs f`
praybgta y fqub``fs qub thbebe acjbthvas ihobrbetbs be su hetbrvbegh÷e pa`äthgf, betrbatrfs gubsthaebs.
B` prhdbr dadbeta ib f p`fehgfgh÷e, rfihgf be f ibehgh÷e pa`äthga-hiba`÷khgf
qub gaethbeb `f p`fehgfgh÷e ib `f tbdæthgf bspbgägf be gubsth÷e. Ib `a gaetrfrha,
`fs hetbrvbeghaebs qubife ibsdfrgfifs ib `f pa`äthgf qub `b iha arhkbe.
h) Ihfke÷sthga ib `f shtufgh÷e: hdp`hgf `f bxp`hgfgh÷e ib `f shtufgh÷e saghf`
qub `f p`fehgfgh÷e quhbrb fcarifr. Gaeshstb be fp`hgfr `as gaeaghdhbetas
ibsfrra``fias be `fs ihobrbetbs ghbeghfs y ihsghp`hefs, pfrf gaestruhr ue bs-
qubdf bxp`hgfthva ib `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs, gadpaebetbs y ibehghaebs ebgb-sfrhfs pfrf gadprbeibr f shtufgh÷e. B` bstuiha sacrb fqub``a qub f pa`äthgf
púc`hgf prbtbeib daihgfr bs duy hdpartfetb, yf qub sh b` ihfke÷sthga bs
brr÷eba, betaegbs `f hetbrvbegh÷e sbkurfdbetb rbsu`tb hefpraphfif. B` gas-
ta saghf` ib `fs hehghfthvfs ib` Bstfia ibehifs be oardf ibghbetb, hdp`hgf
b` suorhdhbeta ib `as krupas saghf`bs heva`ugrfias.
hh) Gaeoardfgh÷e ib` ‐dfpf ib fgtarbs—: sb trftf ib uef ibsgrhpgh÷e ib `as
sbgtarbs saghf`bs hdp`hgfias be `f shtufgh÷e, y b` feæ`hshs ib `as ra`bs qubgudp`hræe `fs pbrsaefs rb`fghaefifs. Hdp`hgf tfdchèe vhsuf`hzfr quhbebs
sbræe fqub``as krupas saghf`bs qub sb apaekfe f `f p`fehgfgh÷e, ib fgubr -
ia f `as pfrædbtras pa`äthga-saghf`bs ib `as ihobrbetbs krupas ib hetbrès y
ib paibr.
Be bstb pueta rfihgf b` gfrægtbr ‐bstrftèkhga— ib `f p`fehgfgh÷e. Wh chbe
gfif gaejueta ib hibfs bxprbsfifs be bstas puetas sae gbetrf`bs f `f dftb-
rhf, `f vhfch`hifi ib uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf sb paeb be jubka prheghpf`dbetb f
trfvès ib `f oardf be guf` sb heg`uyfe a ea, sb fethghpbe a ea, sb ibefe a
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ea, `as ihobrbetbs krupas ib pbrsaefs qub sb begubetrfe hdpfgtfias par `f
tbdæthgf a shtufgh÷e saghf` p`fehgfif.
hhh) Ibehgh÷e prb`hdhefr ib` p`fe, prakrfdf a praybgta: `f va`uetfi pa`ä-
thgf ib hetbrvbehr be uef shtufgh÷e saghf` ibtbrdhefif, `f ibsgrhpgh÷e y
ihfke÷sthga y b` feæ`hshs bstrftèkhga ib` dfpf ib fgtarbs, sb bxprbsfe (parbsgrhta a ea), be uef sbrhb ib ibehghaebs qub dfrgf `f hetbrvbegh÷e: `as
acjbthvas, `as pfsas, `as rbgursas ebgbsfrhas, `as rbspaesfc`bs y bquhpas ib
trfcfja, `as p`fzas, `fs fgghaebs prbvhstfs y `f rb`fgh÷e betrb b``fs.
@`fdfdas f bstf ibehgh÷e ‐prb`hdhefr—, ibchia f qub ea pubib betbeibrsb
gada f`ka fgfcfia, gbrrfia y bstæthga. Bs bspbrfc`b qub `fs ‐va`uetfibs—
qub ihbrae arhkbe f` p`fe, sb daihqube f `a `frka ib` pragbsa ib hdp`b -
dbetfgh÷e, ib fgubria f `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs ib vhfch`hifi qub `f rbf`hifi prbsbetb, f as hdprbvhstas qub surjfe, f as gfdchas be `fs jbrfrquäfs ib as
prac`bdfs y f `fs hetbrvbeghaebs ib `as ihobrbetbs thpas ib fgtarbs.
(hv) Hdp`bdbetfgh÷e y sbkuhdhbeta: sb trftf ib `f pubstf be dfrgmf ib` p`fe,
prakrfdf a praybgta. @f rbf`hzfgh÷e bobgthvf ib `fs fgghaebs ebgbsfrhfs
pfrf `akrfr `as acjbthvas prapubstas. Iurfetb `f btfpf ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e,
`fs trbs btfpfs fetbrharbs pubibe daihgfrsb. @fs gadpbtbeghfs ebgbsfrhfs
pfrf `hibrfr `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs rbsu`tf ue tbdf ib
sudf hdpartfeghf b hetbrès. Be bstb dadbeta, betrfe be jubka oubrtbdbetbfibdæs `fs tbaräfs ib `fs arkfehzfghaebs, `fs garrhbetbs sacrb g÷da oue-
ghaef `f fidhehstrfgh÷e púc`hgf y sacrb gada sb arkfehzfe `as krupas ib
pbrsaefs be tarea f` ibsfoäa ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
(v) Bvf`ufgh÷e y saghf`hzfgh÷e ib `as rbsu`tfias: shbdprb qub sb hetbetb fcar-
ifr uef shtufgh÷e saghf` ibtbrdhefif, bs gaevbehbetb qub f` ef`hzfr `f
hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib` p`fe, paifdas vf`arfr be tèrdheas ib `bkhthdhifi sa-
ghf` `as rbsu`tfias f`gfezfias. ^frf paibr vf`arfr `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf, sbræebgbsfrha qub `f ‐pbrspbgthvf bvf`ufthvf— bstb prbsbetb iurfetb taias `as
dadbetas ib `f p`fehgfgh÷e. Bstf btfpf, `f bvf`ufgh÷e, sbræ ibsfrra``fif
be b` fpfrtfia shkuhbetb.
@f p`fehgfgh÷e hdp`hgf be pfrtb ue gaejueta ib `hebfdhbetas pbesfias pfrf `f
fggh÷e. @f tfrbf ib p`fehgfr sb gaegrbtf be ue gaetbxta ib gadp`bjhifi gfdchfetb,
iaeib `fs ibghshaebs ea shkube ue aribe sbgubeghf` `hebf`, yf qub `f rbf`hifi saghf`
thbeb atrf `÷khgf ib gaeoardfgh÷e. ^ar tf` dathva, `as dadbetas y fgthvhifibs fetbs
beueghfifs shrvbe sa`a f as bobgtas ib pbesfr be ue ihfkrfdf qub eas fyuib gadbe-
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zfr f gaestruhr ue gaeaghdhbeta dæs praoueia sacrb `f p`fehgfgh÷e, tbehbeia gada
dfrga ib rbobrbeghf eubstra prapha gaetbxta efghaef` y `ftheafdbrhgfea.
3.3. @f p`fehgfgh÷e eardfthvf y `f p`fehgfgh÷e bstrftèkhgf
Yf` gada gadbezfdas f ib`hebfr be `as prhdbras pærrfoas, f pfrthr ib `as föas ;>
gadbezfrae f eatfrsb gae dfyar èeofshs fs hdhtfghaebs ib pbesfr f f p`fehgfgh÷e
gada ue dbiha fpraphfia y úth` pfrf hetbrvbehr be `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs. @as ibsf-
rra``as tb÷rhgas oubra pbrihbeia fpaya, dfetbehèeiasb `ftbetb `f gbrtbzf ib qub brf
ebgbsfrha fgadpföfr f `f prægthgf ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs gae dfrgas bxp`hgfthvas
qub gaetuvhbrfe oardfs dæs fgbrtfifs ib p`fehgfr `f hetbrvbegh÷e ib` Bstfia.
Kbebrf`dbetb as fgtarbs fgubrife gae f hibf ib qub f fggh÷e púc`hgf ibcb bstfr
kuhfif par ghbrtf rfghaef`hifi, b` prac`bdf sb begubetrf be ibehr qub hdp`hgf `f
rfghaef`hifi.
@f p`fehgfgh÷e sb ``bvf f gfca be uef rbf`hifi fdchkuf y gaetrfihgtarhf, gad -
p`bjf b heghbrtf, be `f qub sb prbtbeib hetraiughr fgghaebs p`fehgfifs. Yaia p`fe a
prakrfdf bs ue hetbeta ib hetraiughr rfghaef`hifi f `f fggh÷e. bra bsta ea shkehgf,
eh fsbkurf qub `fs fgghaebs sbfe dæs rfghaef`bs a gambrbetbs. @f hegbrthiudcrb ib
taia pragbsa ea sb pubib b`hdhefr y b` fzfr shbdprb bstæ prbsbetb.
@f p`fehgfgh÷e eardfthvf bethbeib `as prac`bdfs sae bsbeghf`dbetb tègehgas, y par `a tfeta b` p`fe sb cfsf be su oardu`fgh÷e. F` paebr b` èeofshs be bstb dadbeta,
b` p`fe sb gaevhbrtb prheghpf`dbetb be uef bxprbsh÷e ib va`uetfi, dbjar a pbar oue-
ifdbetfif ibsib `f ibsgrhpgh÷e ib` prac`bdf.
@f p`fehgfgh÷e bstrftèkhgf be gfdcha gaeshibrf qub b` fspbgta gbetrf` ib `f p`f-
ehgfgh÷e ibpbeibræ ib f rb`fgh÷e betrb fs pbrsaefs heva`ugrfifs y, par a tfeta, su
oaga ib ftbegh÷e bstæ pubsta be `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib` p`fe.
Be bstf äebf ib pbesfdhbeta, f p`fehgfgh÷e eardfthvf sb gaegbetrf be a hibf`,
dhbetrfs qub `f bstrftèkhgf beofthzf `a vhfc`b.Kbebrf`dbetb `a ‐hibf`—, ibcb sbr bxpubsta par `as bxpbrtas, dhbetrfs qub ibsib
uef pbrspbgthvf bstrftèkhgf, sb ibstfgf `f hdpartfeghf ib `f pa`äthgf y `f hetbrvbegh÷e
ib `as ihobrbetbs fgtarbs saghf`bs.
^ar supubsta, ea shkehgf qub uef u atrf pasturf hdp`hqub ibstbrrfr f ueas u
atras ib oardf `hebf`.
@f p`fehgfgh÷e bstrftèkhgf rbgaeagb gada gbetrf` gaetbdp`fr `as hetbrbsbs, eb-
gbshifibs y bxpbgtfthvfs ib `fs pbrsaefs heva`ugrfifs be `f shtufgh÷e qub sb p`feh-
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gf, dhbetrfs qub pfrf `f p`fehgfgh÷e eardfthvf hdpartfe dæs `fs ibghshaebs ib`
sujbta p`fehgfiar qub sb begubetrf ‐oubrf— ib `f rbf`hifi.
Be `f p`fehgfgh÷e eardfthvf, ea sb `b if hdpartfeghf f` paibr a vf`ar ib `as
apaebetbs, dhbetrfs qub `f p`fehgfgh÷e bstrftèkhgf p`fetbf qub b` gaesbesa saghf`
bs `f cfsb oueifdbetf` pfrf `f p`fehgfgh÷e.
F gaetheufgh÷e prbsbetfdas ue gufira gae `fs prheghpf`bs gfrfgtbrästhgfs ib uea
y atra daib`a ib p`fehgfgh÷e.
^@FEHOHGFGH×E EASDFYH_F ^@FEHOHGFGH×E BWYSFYÈKHGF
B` pueta ib pfrthif bs b` ‐daib`a fef`äthga— qub
bxp`hgf `f shtufgh÷e prac`bdf, bxprbsfif be ue
ihfke÷sthga.
B` pueta ib ``bkfif bs b` ‐daib`a eardfthva— qub
bxprbsf b` ihsböa ib` ‐ibcbr sbr—.
6. @f ihdbesh÷e eardfthvf sb bxprbsf be ue ‐ibcbr
sbr—, ib` qub sb ibrhvf ue bsqubdf rhkurasa, oardf-
`hzfia y frthgu`fia ib fgtufgh÷e.
Wb pfrtb ib` supubsta:
ib qub b` shstbdf saghf` pubib sbr acjbta ib arhbetf-
gh÷e par pfrtb ib` p`fegfiar.
6. B` sujbta qub p`fehgf bstæ ‐sacrb— a ‐oubrf— ib `f
rbf`hifi p`fehgfif.
3. B` sujbta qub p`fehgf thbeb b` daeapa`ha ib` p`fe.
B` sujbta p`fehgfiar thbeb gfpfghifi ib gaetra`fr
`f rbf`hifi.
6. B` pueta ib pfrthif bs `f ‐shtufgh÷e hehghf`—, qub
bxp`hgf `f shtufgh÷e prac`bdf, bxprbsfif be ue ihfk-
e÷sthga.
B` pueta ib ``bkfif bs `f ‐shtufgh÷e acjbthva— qub
bxprbsf `f rbf`hzfgh÷e be b` thbdpa ib `f ‐hdfkbe
acjbthva— qub gaekurf b` ‐marhzaetb ut÷phga—.
6. @f ‐shtufgh÷e acjbthva— sb frthgu`f gae b` p`fea
bstrftèkhga ib` ‐pubib sbr— y be p`fea apbrfghaef` gae
`f ‐va`uetfi ib mfgbr—< ea bxhstb ue bsqubdf räkhia ib
fggh÷e shea uef prbagupfgh÷e par `f ihrbgghaef`hifi.
Wb pfrtb ib` supubsta:
ib qub b` shstbdf saghf` bstæ hetbkrfia par pbrsaefs
qub thbebe su praphf bsgf`f ib vf`arbs y bstfc`bgbe `a
qub gaevbehbetb b hegaevbehbetb, cubea a df`a gada
acjbthva f f`gfezfr.
6. B` fgtar qub p`fehgf bstæ hesbrta y oardf pfrtb ib
`f rbf`hifi qub p`fehgf, gabxhsthbeia gae atras fgta-
rbs saghf`bs qub, ib f`kúe daia, tfdchèe p`fehgfe.
3. Ea mfy daeapa`ha be `f b`fcarfgh÷e ib` p`fe, shea
gabxhstbe vfrhas p`febs, f`kueas gaheghibetbs, atras
pashc`bs ib gaegbrtfr y f`kueas be gadpbtbeghf.
@as fgtarbs qub p`fehgfe, ea gaetra`fe par sh sa`as `f
rbf`hifi p`fehgfif.
Oubetb: Cbrefzf (3>>9)
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3.7. Ihstheghaebs betrb `fs pf`fcrfs p`fe, prakrfdf y praybgta
Wh chbe bstas trbs tèrdheas be b` `bekufjb garrhbetb pubibe uth`hzfrsb heihsthetf-
dbetb, ibetra ib `f jbrkf ib `f p`fehgfgh÷e sb uth`hzfe gae f`gfegbs duy ihobrbetbs.
Gfif uea ib bstas tèrdheas heihgf ihsthetas ehvb`bs ib gaegrbgh÷e.Gadbegbdas gae b` f`gfegb y b` shkehgfia ib p`fe qub bs b` tèrdhea ib gfrægtbr
dæs k`acf`. Re p`fe mfgb rbobrbeghf f `fs ibghshaebs ib gfrægtbr kbebrf` qub bxprb-
sfe `as `hebfdhbetas pa`äthgas oueifdbetf`bs, `fs prharhifibs qub sb ibrhvfe ib bsfs
oardu`fghaebs, f fshkefgh÷e ib rbgursas fgarib f bsfs prharhifibs, fs bstrftbkhfs ib
fggh÷e y b` gaejueta ib dbihas b hestrudbetas qub sb vfe f uth`hzfr pfrf f`gfezfr `fs
dbtfs y acjbthvas prapubstas. Ibsib b` pueta ib vhstf ib `f Fidhehstrfgh÷e Gbetrf`,
b` p`fe thbeb par ef`hifi trfzfr b` gursa ibsbfc`b y pracfc`b ib` ibsfrra``a efghaef`
a ib` ibsfrra``a ib ue sbgtar (bgae÷dhga, saghf` a gu`turf`).Re prakrfdf, be sbethia fdp`ha, mfgb rbobrbeghf f ue gaejueta arkfehzfia, ga-
mbrbetb b hetbkrfia ib fgthvhifibs, sbrvhghas a pragbsas bxprbsfias be ue gaejueta
ib praybgtas rb`fghaefias a gaarihefias par ue gaejueta ib prakrfdfs. Ib bstb
daia paibdas mfc`fr ib prakrfdfs ib `f tbrgbrf bifi, prakrfdf ib gaestruggh÷e
ib bsgub`fs, prakrfdf ib sf`ui dftbrea-heofeth`, btg., qub oardfe pfrtb ib ue p`fe
dæs kbebrf`hzfia. ^ubib ibghrsb, fshdhsda, qub ue prakrfdf apbrfghaef`hzf ue
p`fe dbihfetb `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib fgghaebs arhbetfifs f f`gfezfr `fs dbtfs y acjbthvas prapubstas ibetra ib ue pbräaia ibtbrdhefia.
^fsfeia f ue dfyar krfia ib gaegrbgh÷e begaetrfdas `a qub sb ibeadhef pra-
ybgta. Gae bstb gaegbpta sb mfgb rbobrbeghf f ue gaejueta ib fgthvhifibs gaegrbtfs,
hetbrrb`fghaefifs y gaarihefifs betrb sä, qub sb rbf`hzfe gae b` e ib praiughr ibtbr -
dhefias chbebs y sbrvhghas gfpfgbs ib sfthsofgbr ebgbshifibs a rbsa`vbr prac`bdfs.
@f bxpraphfgh÷e ib uef ofcrhgf, pubib sbr ue praybgta ibetra ib ue prakrfdf
ibsthefia f `f rbhevbrsh÷e be `f heiustrhf. @f gaestruggh÷e ib uef bsgub`f bs ue
praybgta ibetra ib ue prakrfdf ib acrf púc`hgf, tfeta gada pfrtb ib uef pa`äthgfbiugfthvf ib fdp`hfr b` pargbetfjb ib `f pac`fgh÷e bsga`frhzfif.
Yfeta `as prakrfdfs gada `as praybgtas, sb gaegrbtfe f trfvès ib ue gaejueta
ib fgthvhifibs arkfehzfifs y frthgu`fifs betrb sä, pfrf f`gfezfr ibtbrdhefifs dbtfs
y acjbthvas bspbgägas. @f ihobrbeghf betrb ue prakrfdf y ue praybgta rfihgf be `f
dfkehtui, ihvbrshifi y bspbghghifi, mfchif gubetf qub ue prakrfdf bstæ gaesthtuh-
ia par uef gaestb`fgh÷e a gaejueta ib praybgtas.
Wh qubrbdas sbkuhr fvfezfeia be uef `äebf ib gaegrbgh÷e grbghbetb, paibdasmfc`fr tfdchèe ib fgthvhifibs y tfrbfs. @f fgthvhifi bs b` dbiha ib hetbrvbegh÷e sa-
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crb `f rbf`hifi, dbihfetb `f rbf`hzfgh÷e sbgubeghf` b hetbkrfif ib ihvbrsfs fgghaebs
ebgbsfrhfs pfrf f`gfezfr `fs dbtfs y acjbthvas bspbgägas ib ue praybgta. X `f tfrbf
bs `f fggh÷e qub thbeb b` dæxhda krfia ib gaegrbgh÷e y bspbghghifi. Re gaejueta
ib tfrbfs gaekurf uef fgthvhifi, betrb `fs dugmfs qub mfy qub rbf`hzfr pfrf gae -
grbtfr ue praybgta.^frf fg`frfr bstas grbghbetbs krfias ib gaegrbgh÷e y bspbghghifi y b` f`gfegb ib
gfif uea ib bstas tèrdheas, paibdas h`ustrfr`as gae as shkuhbetbs bjbdp`as: f pa`ä-
thgf biugfthvf ib ue kachbrea, ue p`fe ib heg`ush÷e ib fia`bsgbetbs f `f sbgueifrhf<
ue prakrfdf ib fgtuf`hzfgh÷e ib `fs eubvfs tbgea`akäfs be `f bsgub`f (gada uea ib
`as prakrfdfs ib` p`fe)< praybgta: `f iatfgh÷e ib dftbrhf` heoardæthga< fgthvhifi:
`f gfpfghtfgh÷e ib `as iagbetbs pfrf b` usa ib` dftbrhf`< tfrbf: `f rbf`hzfgh÷e ib uef
prapubstf iagbetb sacrb `f heg`ush÷e ib `fs eubvfs tbgea`akäfs be b` fu`f.
Oubetb: G`fuihf Cbrefzzf (3>>9)
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3.9. ^a`äthgf y p`fehgfgh÷e
@f p`fehgfgh÷e sb gaeoardf ib gadpaebetbs `hkfias f `f pa`äthgf, betbeihif gada
b` gaejueta ib hibfs y va`uetfibs bxprbsfifs be b` `hibrfzka ib `fs shtufghaebs sa-
ghf`bs, y ib gadpaebetbs `hkfias f `f tègehgf ib` gada p`fehgfr. B` ‐ihæ`aka— betrbias thpas ib gadpaebetbs bs b` pueta eburæ`khga ib `f dftbrhf.
^ar bsa, bs duy hdpartfetb ea pbribr ib vhstf qub, she `f bxprbsh÷e, `f hetbrvbe-
gh÷e y b` `hibrfzka ib `f pa`äthgf, `f tègehgf ib `f p`fehgfgh÷e phbrib taia sbethia.
Yf` gada beueghfdas be fetbrhardbetb, bstb bs uea ib `as prheghpf`bs ibsfoäas f
`f marf ib p`fehgfr: sastbebr `f ib gbetrf`hifi ib `f kufrif `f pa`äthgf.
Gada taif tègehgf, `f p`fehgfgh÷e thbeb uef ghbrtf fdchvf`beghf< be sä dhs-
df ea bs cubef eh df`f. ^bra f` sbr ue ‐hestrudbeta— pubib sbr uth`hzfia gae
ihobrbetbs hetbeghaef`hifibs y be ihobrbetbs ghrguestfeghfs. Wb `f mf bdp`bfia ‗y sb `f pubib bdp`bfr‗ tfeta pfrf b` dfetbehdhbeta ib` stftu qua, gada pfrf
hdpu`sfr rboardfs y gfdchas bstrugturf`bs. ^ubib sbr uth`hzfif heihsthetfdbetb
par pfäsbs rhgas a pfäsbs pacrbs< heibpbeihbetbdbetb ib` rèkhdbe pa`äthga y `as
acjbthvas qub sb pbrshkfe.
Wb pubib prakrfdfr pfrf `f brrfihgfgh÷e ib `f pacrbzf, gada pfrf b` grbghdhbeta
ib `as krfeibs krupas ib paibr bdprbsfrhf`, pfrf `f pradagh÷e y praoueihzfgh÷e
ib `f gu`turf praphf ib uef rbkh÷e, tfeta gada pfrf b` gaesuda ib sädca`as fjbeas, pfrf `f gbetrf`hzfgh÷e ib ibghshaebs bgae÷dhgfs, tfeta gada pfrf `f rbkhaef`hzfgh÷e
ib `fs praiugghaebs.
Bxhstbe ihobrbeghfs sustfeghf`bs, ea tfeta be `fs tègehgfs ib p`fehgfgh÷e,
guæeta be b` bsth`a ib ibsfrra``a qub b``fs prapaebe, sbkúe sbf b` dfrga a pra-
ybgta pa`äthga be qub sb rbf`hzfe. @as pfrædbtras hiba`÷khga-pa`äthgas ibtbr-
dhefe b` ‐ pfrf quhèe— ib `f p`fehgfgh÷e (f quhèebs cbebghf) y b` ‐g÷da— sb
gudp`hræe `as acjbthvas prapubstas.
Yaif p`fehgfgh÷e bs dugma dæs qub ue pragbsa ib rfghaef`hzfgh÷e be `f tadf
ib ibghshaebs< bs `f hestrudbetfgh÷e ib ue praybgta pa`äthga, fue gufeia bstb sa`a
mfyf shia ibehia ib uef dfebrf vfkf a fdchkuf.
7. @f bvf`ufgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs
@f bvf`ufgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs oardf pfrtb ib fqub` pragbsa dfrgfia par b` hetbeta
ib fshkefr pbrthebeghf y sustbeta saghf` f `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, qub hehghf gae `f
p`fehgfgh÷e ib `fs dhsdfs y gu`dhef gae `f bvf`ufgh÷e.
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gadpartfdhbeta ib `fs fidhehstrfghaebs púc`hgfs hetbrfgtúfe y ibebe `f ibghsh÷e
ib bvf`ufr a ea uef pa`äthgf y g÷da mfgbr`a.
@f bvf`ufgh÷e ib fs pa`äthgfs, sb begubetrf sustfeghf`dbetb ibehif par b` betrf-
dfia ib gadp`bjhifi qub gfrfgtbrhzf f` Bstfia, `f pa`äthgf y `f saghbifi. Hdp`hgf `f
fshkefgh÷e ib vf`ar sacrb b` fgghaefr ib` Bstfia y sus gaesbgubeghfs saghf`bs, y par`a tfeta bs ue pragbsa gfdchfetb, pfrthghpfthva, bxhc`b b hetbrihsghp`hefrha.
Yaifs bstfs gubsthaebs oardfe pfrtb ib ue betarea gadp`bja ib gadpaebetbs qub
hetbrfgtúfe betrb sä ib oardf heghshvf y ibtbrdhefe f `f bvf`ufgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs.
@f sbkueif väf ib feæ`hshs thbeb qub vbr gae `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs bstrftèkhgfs ib
`f bvf`ufgh÷e gada ihsghp`hef, fcfrgfeia gubsthaebs gada `f hesbrgh÷e ib `f bvf-
`ufgh÷e be b` ghg`a ib vhif ib `f pa`äthgf, `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs dbtaia`÷khgfs qub bstf
fsudb be ouegh÷e ib `as ihobrbetbs thpas ib acjbthvas y fgubrias p`fetbfias pfrf suhdp`bdbetfgh÷e, `f ibehgh÷e ib `as fgtarbs heva`ugrfias y `f ‐uth`hifi— ib `f bvf-
`ufgh÷e be sä dhsdf betrb atras ibcftbs.
7.6. Crbvb mhstarhf ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e
B` ibsfrra``a ib f bvf`ufgh÷e ib prakrfdfs púc`hgas ea bs ue obe÷dbea rbghbetb. @f
bvf`ufgh÷e gada ghbeghf saghf` sb vub`vb ue `ukfr gadúe iurfetb `as föas 2>. @as
prhdbras prakrfdfs qub mfe shia acjbta ib bvf`ufgh÷e `as begaetrfdas be b` gfdpaib `fs pa`äthgfs biugfthvfs, saghf`bs y ib sf`ui.
Bstb ibsfrra``a sb bobgthvhz÷ tfeta be `as pfäsbs dæs ibsfrra``fias gada be `as
pfäsbs dbeas ibsfrra``fias, iaeib sb bvhibegh÷ ue hdpu`sa f `f bvf`ufgh÷e ib pa`ä-
thgfs be b` dhsda pbräaia.
Yfeta b` fpfrfta bstftf` gada `as arkfehsdas ib ibsfrra``a ea kucbrefdbetf`bs
mfe vbehia rbf`hzfeia bvf`ufghaebs. Bs pashc`b ghtfr, f daia ib bjbdp`a, `f bvf`uf-
gh÷e ib prakrfdfs ib p`fehgfgh÷e ofdh`hfr be Fshf, ib prakrfdfs ib sf`ui y eutrh-
gh÷e be Fdèrhgf @fthef, ib fkrhgu`turf y ibsfrra``a gaduehtfrha be Æorhgf.Be `fs iègfifs ib` ?> y ;> grbgb eatfc`bdbetb `f gfethifi ib frtägu`as y `hcras
sacrb bstb tbdf. Gadhbezfe f ghrgu`fr ihsgushaebs y frtägu`as gräthgas sacrb pasturfs
gufethtfthvhstfs y guf`htfthvhstfs, sacrb b` ra` ib f bvf`ufgh÷e be b` pragbsa ib fs pa-
`äthgfs, sacrb gubsthaebs dbtaia`÷khgfs. ^ra`hobrfe `fs puc`hgfghaebs y gaeobrbeghfs,
`fs fsaghfghaebs praobshaef`bs, `as begubetras betrb bvf`ufiarbs.
Wgrhvbe (68?;) bs ue `÷saoa ib `f ghbeghf y uea ib `as prhdbras tb÷rhgas ib `f
bvf`ufgh÷e. Be su frtägu`a ‐Ymb dbtmaia`aky ar bvf`ufthae,— hetraiugb `as tèrdheasbvf`ufgh÷e oardfthvf y bvf`ufgh÷e sudfthvf, pfrf ihsthekuhr betrb `fs bvf`ufghaebs,
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guyf rbf`hzfgh÷e thbeb par acjbthva praparghaefr heoardfgh÷e f `fs pbrsaefs qub he-
tbetfe dbjarfr b` acjbta bvf`ufia, ib `fs bvf`ufghaebs pbesfifs pfrf praparghaefr
heoardfgh÷e sacrb `f gaetheuhifi ib ue prakrfdf.
Betrb as futarbs ib bstb pbräaia paibdas ghtfr fibdæs f Gfdpcb`` (68??), quhbe
be b` trfcfja ‐ Bxpbrhdbetf` fei Vufsh‗Bxpbrhdbetf` Ibsheks oar Sbsbfrgm—, rbf-`hzfia gae Wtfe`by rbgmfzf `f hibf ib qub `f bvf`ufgh÷e pubif kbebrfr uef tbaräf
ebutrf` a ue gaeaghdhbeta acjbthva. Wasthbeb qub `f dbihif gufethtfthvf sb cfsf be
supashghaebs guf`htfthvfs y sböf`f qub ihsthetas fgtarbs ib ue prakrfdf prbobrhræe
ihobrbetbs rbsu`tfias.
@f hdpartfeghf pfrf bstb futar rfihgf be `f pashch`hifi ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e ib bxprb-
sfr uef vf`arfgh÷e ib `as fgaetbghdhbetas praiughias par ue prakrfdf, dæs f``æ ib
qub bsf heoardfgh÷e pubif sbr kbebrf`hzfif f atras prakrfdfs púc`hgas.@ubka, iurfetb `f iègfif ib` =>, `f rbva`ugh÷e tbgea`÷khgf oub ue hdpartfetb
bsthdu`a pfrf `f bvf`ufgh÷e ib prakrfdfs, pravagfeia gfdchas qub fúe may gaeth-
eúfe daihgfeia `fs prægthgfs ib bvf`ufgh÷e. Wb fgbetúf `f rbbxh÷e fgbrgf ib` `f
uth`hifi ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e y su hesbrgh÷e be b` gaetbxta pa`äthga y arkfehzfthva.
Be su acrf, [ma`by (68=6, 68=7), sb rbbrb f `f bvf`ufgh÷e gada uef rbspubstf
f `f ebgbshifi ib `as ihrbgthvas y kbstarbs púc`hgas ib bvf`ufr sus prakrfdfs gae b`
acjbthva ib begaetrfr dfebrfs ib kbsthaefr`as dbjar.
@f prharhifi pfrf [ma`by bstæ be `f kbsth÷e ib `as prakrfdfs. @f bvf`ufgh÷e ib- cbräf sbrvhr pfrf ofgh`htfr dbjarfs bvhibetbs be `f kbsth÷e, rbeihdhbeta y rbsu`tfias
ib `as prakrfdfs ib `f fidhehstrfgh÷e (68=7). Be `f dhsdf `äebf, ibsib ue pueta ib
vhstf dbtaia`÷khga, b` trfcfja ib Wtflb (68=>) ibstfgf `f hdpartfeghf ib as bstuihas
ib gfsa y `fs bstrftbkhfs guf`htfthvfs ib hevbsthkfgh÷e.
^aibdas dbeghaefr fibdæs b` trfcfja ib Graecfgm (68=3), quhbe p`fetbf qub
cubef pfrtb ib `as prac`bdfs be b` usa ib `fs bvf`ufghaebs pravhbebe ib` daib`a
rfghaef` be qub sb oueifdbetfe.Be ú`thdas föas fshsthdas f uef gfif vbz dfyar gadp`bjhzfgh÷e ib `as prakrf-
dfs. Gae bstf rbf`hifi tfdchèe `fs oardfs ib bvf`ufgh÷e sb oubrae ihvbrshgfeia,
mfe bva`ughaefia tfeta as ibcftbs y ihsgushaebs tb÷rhgfs gada fs prægthgfs gaegrb-
tfs ib bvf`ufgh÷e ib `as prakrfdfs púc`hgas. ^ra`hobrfrae `fs ihsgushaebs fgbrgf ib`
ra` sustfeghf` ib` bvf`ufiar, sb fgbetu÷ `f ihsthegh÷e betrb `fs dhrfifs ‐ghbetägfs—
y ‐prfkdæthgfs— ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e.
^aibdas ibghr qub uef ib `fs rbbxhaebs qub mf pradavhia ue fvfegb be b` ib-
sfrra``a gaegbptuf` ib f bvf`ufgh÷e be fs ú`thdfs iègfifs, bs su gadprbesh÷e gada
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uef prægthgf gadp`bjf, qub vf dæs f``æ ib f fp`hgfgh÷e ib uef sbrhb ib dbtaia`akäfs
pfrf `f cúsqubif ib heoardfgh÷e sacrb `as prakrfdfs púc`hgas. @f bvf`ufgh÷e vhstf
gada fgthvhifi pa`äthgf, qub par `a tfeta sb vb heubeghfif par su dhsdf `÷khgf.
Bstb fvfegb mf pbrdhthia vhsuf`hzfr f `f bvf`ufgh÷e ib oardf hetbkrf`, gada pfr-
tb ib `fs pa`äthgfs y `as davhdhbetas ib `f fidhehstrfgh÷e púc`hgf.Be bstf `äebf ib trfcfja begaetrfdas `f sbkueif btfpf ib `f acrf ib Gfra` [bhss
(68=;), quhbe beofthzf `f hdpartfeghf ib` gaetbxta pa`äthga y arkfehzfthva be `f bvf-
`ufgh÷e ib prakrfdfs púc`hgas.
[bhss mfcäf fiaptfia `fs tbaräfs y dètaias bxpbrhdbetf`bs be su prhdbrf acrf,
pbra praeta fivhbrtb sacrb `fs ihgu`tfibs pa`äthgfs y arkfehzfthvfs qub prbsbetf `f
bvf`ufgh÷e pfrf praiughr rbsu`tfias qub sbfe bobgthvfdbetb uth`hzfias. @f futarf
ibsgrhcb b` pbshdhsda y `f ibgbpgh÷e qub praiugbe `as rbsu`tfias ib `f prhdbrfa`bfif ib bvf`ufghaebs be `as föas ;>. ‐Heg`usa uth`hzfeia `as dètaias dæs sas-
thgfias sb thbeib f begaetrfr èxhtas dfrkhef`bs. ^ar atrf pfrtb, `as iftas rbgakhias
par `f bvf`ufgh÷e pfrbgbe ea tbebr ehekúe bobgta be `fs ibghshaebs prbsupubstfrhfs a
sacrb `f bxpfesh÷e a rbiuggh÷e ib ue prakrfdf—. (68=;).
B` ibsfrra``a qub rbf`hzf [bhss be su acrf yf ghtfif fgbrgf ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e `a
mfgb sacrb `f hibf ib ias prbdhsfs:
h) `as acjbthvas ib `as prakrfdfs thbeibe f sbr kbebrf`bs, ihousas, ihvbrsas b
hegaeshstbetbs. _fräfe pfrf gfif uef ib `fs pfrtbs fobgtfifs y thbebe bsgfsfrb`fgh÷e gae b` oueghaefdhbeta ib` prakrfdf. Bsta sb ibcb f `f vfrhbifi ib
fgtarbs heva`ugrfias be `f ibehgh÷e ib uef pa`äthgf, pfrf kfefr b` fgubria
ib taias bs ebgbsfrha mfgbr pradbsfs rbf`hstfs y ea tfe rbf`hstfs.
hh) Dhbetrfs be ue `fcarftarha sb pubib bspbrfr qub ue trftfdhbeta fgfcb a
sb pubif daihgfr sh f`ka vf df`, ue prakrfdf rbf`, rfrfdbetb sb pubib
gfdchfr par gadp`bta sh f`ka vf df`. @as gfdchas sae hegrbdbetf`bs fetb
qub dfshvas.Fibdæs [bhss ibstfgf `f heghibeghf qub b` gaetbxta pa`äthga thbeb be `f uth`hzf-
gh÷e ib `as rbsu`tfias be `fs bvf`ufghaebs ib `as prakrfdfs. ^frf [bhss `fs gaesh-
ibrfghaebs pa`äthgfs thbebe betrfif ib trbs oardfs ihsthetfs: (h) `as prakrfdfs sae
b` rbsu`tfia ib ibghshaebs pa`äthgfs< (hh) `as rbsu`tfias ib uef bvf`ufgh÷e betrfe be
`f frbef pa`äthgf y gadphtbe par `f ftbegh÷e ib `as ibghsarbs gae atras ofgtarbs qub
thbebe su prapha pbsa be b` pragbsa pa`äthga< (hhh) `f bvf`ufgh÷e, be sä dhsdf, bs pa-
`äthgf tfeta qub hdp`äghtfdbetb fiaptf ibtbrdhefifs pashghaebs pa`äthgfs sacrb `f
`bkhthdhifi ib `as acjbthvas a ib `f bstrftbkhf ib` prakrfdf.
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Be `f fgtuf`hifi, shkube fchbrtfs y be gaestruggh÷e `fs ihsgushaebs fgbrgf ib` ra`
ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e be `f vhif ib `fs pa`äthgfs, ib `fs gubsthaebs èthgfs rb`fghaefifs gae
`f prægthgf ib` bvf`ufiar, ib fs gaeihghaebs hesthtughaef`bs ebgbsfrhfs y fs dbtaia-
`akäfs dæs fpraphfifs.
^bra bstfs ihsgushaebs ibcbe p`fetbfrsb bedfrgfifs be ue ibsfoäa dæs fdp`hay fcfrgfthva be `as pfäsbs ib Fdèrhgf @fthef, gada `a bs begaetrfr `fs ihobrbetbs
oardfs ib mfgbr ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e uef prægthgf qub fyuib f `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib
dbjarbs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs.
Ibsib b` pueta ib vhstf ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs y prakrfdfs púc`hgas bspb-
gägfdbetb, paibdas fkrupfr `fs ihobrbetbs garrhbetbs be trbs krfeibs beoaqubs. Be
`f dfyaräf ib `as ihsböas hesthtughaef`bs ib bvf`ufgh÷e bstas beoaqubs ea sb vhsuf-
`hzfe ib oardf ‐purf—, shea qub bs mfchtuf` begaetrfr shstbdfs qub gadchefe bstfsihobrbetbs pbrspbgthvfs:
h) Beoaqub bgae÷dhga: rbf`hzf feæ`hshs ib` thpa gasta-cbebgha. B` fgbeta bstf
pubsta be `f supbrvhsh÷e y gaetra` ib` kfsta y `f `bkhthdhifi be b` usa ib
rbgursas púc`hgas.
hh) Beoaqub fidhehstrfthva-kbrbeghf : f trfvès ib `f gadpfrfgh÷e ib `f kbs-
th÷e púc`hgf gae `f kbsth÷e prhvfif, sb p`fetbf `f ebgbshifi ib bxhkhr f` Bs-
tfia ehvb`bs ib praiugthvhifi dæs f`tas. B` ghuififea bs betbeihia f trfvès
ib` gaegbpta ib g`hbetb< guyfs ebgbshifibs ibcbe sbr sfthsobgmfs ib dfebrfræphif y bgfz. Ibsib bstb beoaqub sb prbtbeib bvf`ufr `as rbsu`tfias f`-
gfezfias par `f kbsth÷e púc`hgf, `f bghbeghf be b` usa ib `as rbgursas y b`
ehvb` ib sfthsofggh÷e ghuififef.
hhh) Beoaqub pa`äthga hetbkrf`: bstb beoaqub fcfrgf `as ias fetbrharbs, be-
tbeihbeia ebgbsfrha rbf`hzfr bvf`ufghaebs rb`fghaefifs gae b` gaetra`
ib` kfsta y gae b` `akra ib rbsu`tfias gaegrbtas ib `f kbsth÷e púc`hgf.
@f ihobrbeghf bs qub p`fetbf f `f bvf`ufgh÷e ibetra ue dfrga ib gad- prbesh÷e ib` Bstfia gada praybgta pa`äthga y saghf`, y rbsf`tf `f hdpar-
tfeghf ib su ouegh÷e be gufeta f bxprbsh÷e ib vf`arbs, ebgbshifibs y
ihvbrshifi ib `f saghbifi. Bethbeib qub `as feæ`hshs ib gasta-cbebgha,
gaetra` ib kbsth÷e a praiugthvhifi ea fcfrgfe `f gadp`bjhifi ib `f ar-
kfehzfgh÷e bstftf`, y su gaesbgubetb rb`fgh÷e gae `f ghuififeäf. @f bvf-
`ufgh÷e be bstb dfrga, sb gaevhbrtb be uef apartuehifi ib fprbeihzfjb
y vf`arfgh÷e pfrthghpfthvf ib `fs hdp`hgfeghfs saghf`bs qub `as ihsthetas
prakrfdfs shkehgfe.
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7.3. Re daib`a hetbkrf` ib bvf`ufgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs
Be b` dfrga ib` ibcftb fgtuf` sacrb `f bvf`ufgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs, begaetrfdas qub
uea ib `as prheghpf`bs ibsfoäas f `f marf ihsböfr daib`as hetbkrf`bs ib bvf`ufgh÷e
ib pa`äthgfs rfihgf be `f gfpfghifi ib pradavbr `f hetbkrfgh÷e y ihvbrshgfgh÷e ib:h) `fs oueghaebs ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e: vf`arfgh÷e ib` pragbsa y `as rbsu`tfias f`-
gfezfias par `f pa`äthgf.
hh) (@as fgtarbs hetbrvhehbetbs: `as rbspaesfc`bs y pfrthghpbs ib `f hdp`bdbe-
tfgh÷e ib f pa`äthgf y sacrb taia ib as usufrhas ib` sbrvhgha a praiugta qub
bstf kbebrf be `f gaduehifi.
hhh) @as dadbetas be `as guf`bs sb rbf`hzf `f bvf`ufgh÷e: be b` dadbeta ib
ihfke÷sthga, iurfetb f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e y f f marf ib rbkhstrfr y vf`arfr as
rbsu`tfias ib `f pa`äthgf.hv) @as usas ib `f heoardfgh÷e qub `f bvf`ufgh÷e praparghaef: heihsguthif-
dbetb, bs ebgbsfrha oagf`hzfr b` usa ib `f heoardfgh÷e be b` fprbeihzfjb y
`f trfesoardfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf bvf`ufif pfrf dbjarfr `f gf`hifi bstftf`.
Ref ib `fs prheghpf`bs hibfs f tbebr be gubetf orbetb f` ibsfoäa ib pbesfr, ibsgrh-
chr a prapaebr shstbdfs ib bvf`ufgh÷e bs `f gaetbdp`fgh÷e ib ue daib`a ib bvf`uf-
gh÷e hetbkrf`, gaestruhia f pfrthr ib `f gadp`bjhifi qub `f fggh÷e bstftf` prbsbetf,
`f urkbeghf ib dbjarfr `f gf`hifi ib `fs pa`äthgfs y `f ebgbsfrhf frthgu`fgh÷e ib `fbsobrf pa`äthgf y `f bsobrf tègehgf qub gaevhvbe y mfchtuf`dbetb gaeoraetfe be `f
fidhehstrfgh÷e.
7.7. @f trfesvbrsf`hifi ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e: dhrfif hetbkrfif ib`
kachbrea y `f kbsth÷e
Ibsib uef pbrspbgthvf hetbkrfiarf ib ihobrbetbs beoaqubs begaetrfdas b` trfcfja
ib` futar Jafe Wuchrfts (6889), quhbe p`fetbf gada prhdbr b`bdbeta ib rbbxh÷e f`dadbeta ib hetraiughr b`bdbetas ib bvf`ufgh÷e, `f ihobrbeghfgh÷e ib `as tbdfs qub
sae praphas ib` ædchta ib kachbrea y fqub``as qub sae praphas ib` ædchta ib kbsth÷e.
Ea shkehgf qub sbfe ædchtas sbpfrfias, shea qub paibdas ihsthekuhr fgghaebs dæs
rb`fghaefifs gae b` kachbrea y fgghaebs dæs rb`fghaefifs gae `f kbsth÷e. F su vbz,
bstas ias ædchtas pubibe sucihvhihrsb pbesfeia be `a bstrftèkhga y `a apbrfghaef`.
Bstf ihsthegh÷e eas pbrdhtb arkfehzfr `as bspfghas be guftra gufirfetbs, qub b` futar
bsqubdfthzf ib `f shkuhbetb dfebrf:
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Bstrftèkhga Apbrfghaef`
Kachbrea 6 3
Kbsth÷e 7 9
Oubetb: Wuchrfts (3>>9)
B` futar uth`hzf gada fef`akäf f `f efvbkfgh÷e, iaeib bs ebgbsfrha ihobrbeghfr fs
fgghaebs ib rbdfr (9: Kbsth÷e Apbrfthvf), thdaebfr (7: Kbsth÷e Bstrftèkhgf), `fs `f-
carbs ib gaetrfdfbstrb: kachbrea ib apbrfghaebs, oueghaebs ib gaetra`, supbrvhsh÷e,
btg. (3: Kachbrea Apbrfthva) y par ú`thda `fcarbs ib gfphtfeäf, b` gfdpa prapha ib
`f efvbkfgh÷e (6: Kachbrea Bstrftèkhga). Whe gadp`btfr bstb bspfgha of`tfe grhtbrhas
ib gaeshstbeghf pfrf paibr gadprbeibr uef `fcar bvf`ufiarf sbrhf. Whe gfrtf ib ef-
vbkfgh÷e, eh rbdfr eh thdaebfr thbeb ibdfshfia sbethia.
@f bvf`ufgh÷e ibsfrra``fif be fs bsobrfs ib f kbsth÷e pubib sbr úth` pfrf fudbe-
tfr `f bghbeghf ib `fs fidhehstrfghaebs, dbjarfeia `f uth`hzfgh÷e ib `as rbgursas,
rfghaef`hzfeia `as pragbsas hetbreas y pradavhbeia dbjarbs rbsu`tfias ib kbsth÷e.
^bra ea sb ibcb pbribr ib vhstf qub bstfdas mfc`feia sa`a ib `f fidhehstrfgh÷e. Bs
ghbrta qub ehekuea ib `as trbs gadpaebetbs ib `as shstbdfs ibdagræthgas sacrbvhvb
y fgtúf sbpfrfia ib` rbsta, pbra `as shstbdfs ib bvf`ufgh÷e qub mfc`fe bspbgägf-
dbetb ib` ehvb` hesthtughaef`, bstf vf`arfeia `as fspbgtas ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib uef pa`äthgf, bs ibghr ue rbgartb ib` gadp`bja shstbdf ib rbprbsbetfgh÷e y ib rb`fgh÷e
betrb `f ghuififeäf, b` shstbdf pa`äthga y `f fidhehstrfgh÷e.
B` ibsfoäa sb begubetrf be paebr ftbegh÷e be b` thpa y gf`hifi ib `fs hetbrrb`f-
ghaebs betrb `fs arkfehzfghaebs púc`hgfs, `as shstbdfs ib kachbrea y b` hdpfgta be
`f gf`hifi ib vhif ib `f pac`fgh÷e. @as shstbdfs ib bvf`ufgh÷e qub sa`a bxfdhebe
`as gadpaebetbs hetbreas ib` oueghaefdhbeta ib `f fidhehstrfgh÷e, gaeshkube be b`
dbjar ib as gfsas fvfezfr be f dbjarf ib su bghbeghf y ib` krfia ib gudp`hdhbeta
ib `fs prbvhshaebs pragbihdbetf`bs. Gaeshibrfdas qub b` beoaqub qub ib dfebrfdæs prbghsf if f f bvf`ufgh÷e b` gfrægtbr ib bstrftbkhf trfesvbrsf` oartf`bgbiarf ib
`as shstbdfs ibdagræthgas bs b` pa`äthga hetbkrf`.
Bs ibghr, b` gbetra ib `f ftbegh÷e f` dadbeta ib ihsböfr shstbdfs ib bvf`ufgh÷e ib
`f kbsth÷e ibcb bstfr pubsta be b` fprbeihzfjb sacrb `f kbsth÷e, b` gudp`hdhbeta ib `as
acjbthvas bstrftèkhgas ib kachbrea y b` oartf`bghdhbeta ib f ibdagrfghf gada shstbdf.
@as acjbthvas pa`äthgas ib kachbrea, beueghfias prbobrbetbdbetb gada pa`äthgfs
ib f`ta hdpfgta, ibebe `fs fgghaebs bstrftèkhgfs ib `f kbsth÷e y su gaesbgubetboardf ib bvf`ufgh÷e.
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Ib bstf oardf sb `akrf `f hetbkrfgh÷e trfesvbrsf` betrb gfif uea ib `as dadbetas
y ‐gadpaebetbs— ib uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf.
7.9. @f bvf`ufgh÷e, su rb`fgh÷e gae `f dbjarf ib `f kbsth÷e pú-c`hgf y b` ra` ib` BstfiaSbsu`tf fibdæs ebgbsfrha praoueihzfr be `f rb`fgh÷e betrb `f bvf`ufgh÷e, `f dbjarf
ib `f kbsth÷e bstftf` púc`hgf y `fs ihobrbetbs pasturfs fgbrgf ib` ra` ib` Bstfia.
Mbdas yf fvfezfia sacrb uef ibehgh÷e ib bvf`ufgh÷e, iaeib sb mfgb mhegfphè
be f hdpartfeghf ib f bvf`ufgh÷e pfrf f`hdbetfr f tadf ib ibghshaebs púc`hgfs gae
b` prap÷shta ib dbjarfr `f fggh÷e bstftf`.
Bstf ihsthegh÷e ea bs dbear, fuequb ibsib b` p`fea ihsgurshva pubib rbsu`tfr
febgi÷thgf. Be ghbrtas ibsfrra``as tb÷rhgas y be `f prægthgf ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e, bsgadúe qub su uth`hifi sb rb`fghaeb oubrtbdbetb gae `f rbeihgh÷e ib gubetfs (pra-
gbsa f trfvès ib` guf` `as rbspaesfc`bs ib `fs pa`äthgfs y `f fidhehstrfgh÷e dhsdf
bxpaebe fetb `as arkfehsdas grbfias f tf` e y quhzæs fetb sbgtarbs dæs fdp`has
ib `f saghbifi, `as rbsu`tfias f`gfezfias f trfvès ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib `fs
fgghaebs ib kbsth÷e).
Fquä `f bvf`ufgh÷e bstæ p`fetbfif gada uef prægthgf supbrfiarf ib` dbgfehsda
ib rbeihgh÷e ib gubetfs, paehbeia be oaga be `f dbjarf ib `f fggh÷e bstftf` qub bstfihsghp`hef pubib pradavbr be ghbrtas gaetbxtas.
Betbeihbeia f `f ‐dbjarf— ib `f kbsth÷e bstftf` gada f `fs ibghshaebs y fgghaebs
qub sb hdp`bdbetfe be `f fidhehstrfgh÷e púc`hgf, pravagfeia dbjarbs ehvb`bs ib gf-
`hifi ib vhif ib `f pac`fgh÷e, f trfvès ib `f hetbrvbegh÷e ib` Bstfia be `f rbsa`ugh÷e
ib ibtbrdhefifs prac`bdæthgfs saghf`bs.
Fmarf chbe ±par què sb p`fetbf qub f bvf`ufgh÷e pubib dbjarfr f fggh÷e ib` Bstfia1
F`kuefs ib `fs rfzaebs sb bxprbsfe f gaetheufgh÷e:
h) `f gaestruggh÷e ib heoardfgh÷e sacrb b` ihfke÷sthga, ibsfrra``a y f`gfegbib rbsu`tfias ib uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf (bs ibghr `f bvf`ufgh÷e be sä dhsdf)
pradubvb:
f) Dfyarbs prbghshaebs fgbrgf ib `fs gfrfgtbrästhgfs ib` prac`bdf qub sb
hetbetf fcarifr.
c) Dfyarbs pashch`hifibs ib p`fetbfr gursas ib fggh÷e fgaribs f `f vhfch`h-
ifi qub bsb prac`bdf p`fetbf.
g) Mbrrfdhbetfs dæs fpraphfifs pfrf daihgfr ‐sacrb `f dfrgmf— ibghsha-ebs hebgfgbs, hefibgufifs a heapartuefs.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
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i) ^ashch`hifi ib gaduehgfr `as rbsu`tfias f`gfezfias be tèrdheas ib db-
jarfs be `fs gaeihghaebs ib vhif ib `f pac`fgh÷e.
Wh uef ibtbrdhefif fggh÷e púc`hgf sb cfsf be f ibsgrhpgh÷e fpraphfif ib` prac`b-
df, p`fetbf gursas ib fggh÷e vhfc`bs y trfcfjf pfrf kbebrfr `as fgubrias y gaesbesas
ebgbsfrhas, pracfc`bdbetb, sb heg`heb f gaesbkuhr dbjarbs rbsu`tfias be tèrdheas ibrbsa`ugh÷e ib uef tbdæthgf saghf`, qub fqub``f pa`äthgf qub sb ihsböb she gaetfr gae
`f gaestruggh÷e ib heoardfgh÷e prbghsf qub `as pragbsas bvf`ufthvas rbprbsbetfe.
hh) Be rbobrbeghf f `f frthgu`fgh÷e ib fgtarbs, `f bvf`ufgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs
ibsib uef pbrspbgthvf hetbkrf`, pradubvb:
f) Dfyarbs prbghshaebs y ehvb`bs ib gadprbesh÷e fgbrgf ib `fs bxpbgtf-
thvfs ib `as ihobrbetbs fgtarbs heva`ugrfias: `as rbspaesfc`bs a `äibrbs
pa`äthgas, `f fidhehstrfgh÷e qub ibcb bjbgutfr `f fggh÷e y b` sbgtar ib `fghuififeäf hdp`hgfia.
c) Dbjarbs fgubrias sacrb `as rbsu`tfias qub sb p`fetbf f`gfezfr.
g) Dfyarbs ehvb`bs ib gadpradhsa par pfrtb ib `as ihobrbetbs fgtarbs fgbr-
gf ib` ibsfrra``a fibgufia ib` praybgta.
i) Ref vf`arfgh÷e dæs praoueif ib `f fggh÷e bstftf` y `as rbsu`tfias
f`gfezfias.
B` ibsbdpböa ib f kbsth÷e púc`hgf ea pubib vf`arfrsb heibpbeihbetbdbetb ib f
hibf prbpaeibrfetb sacrb b` ra` ib` Bstfia.Gfr`as _h`fs (3>66) frdf qub `fs hdp`hgfghaebs hiba`÷khgfs ea sae iftas bxtbreas f
`f mbgmurf ib `fs pa`äthgfs, shea qub heghibe be b``fs ib dfebrf ibtbrdhefetb. @fs fggha-
ebs y ibghshaebs tadfifs be b` pragbsa ib oardu`fgh÷e, hdp`bdbetfgh÷e y bvf`ufgh÷e ib
uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf acbibgbe f ue pfrfkufs ib dfyar f`gfegb, gaestruhia par acjbthvas
pa`äthgas qub rbspaeibe f uef vhsh÷e ib` Bstfia, f saghbifi y as gadpaebetbs fsaghfias.
Sbsu`tf ebgbsfrha betbeibr f f fidhehstrfgh÷e gada uea ib as gadpaebetbs ib`
shstbdf pa`äthga, ihrbgtfdbetb heubeghfia par `as ibvbehrbs mhst÷rhgas y gadp`bjfsrb`fghaebs bxhstbetbs betrb `as b`bdbetas qub `a gaeoardfe.
^ar `a tfeta, bs ebgbsfrha fibdæs p`fetbfr `f hdpartfeghf qub thbeb `f rb`fgh÷e betrb
ue daib`a ib Bstfia heg`ushva ib fs ebgbshifibs saghf`bs y f bvf`ufgh÷e ib fs pa`äthgfs.
9. BE SBWRDBE
Wacrb gada p`fehgfr y bvf`ufr fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, bxhstb vfrhfif chc`hakrfoäf,
mfghbeia rbobrbeghf f tbaräfs, daif`hifibs, bxpbrhbeghfs bxhtasfs, ibsfoäas pbeihbe-tbs y prapubstfs ihvbrsfs.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
379
Bs ebgbsfrha gaestruhr ue dfrga ib rbobrbeghf tb÷rhga qub fcarib `f tbdæthgf
ibsib f gadp`bjhifi qub hdp`hgf, y paekf be shtufgh÷e f` pragbsa ib p`fehgfgh÷e y
bvf`ufgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs, be b` gaetbxta ib Fdèrhgf @fthef.
^bra, par sacrb taia, gada praobshaef`bs ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs, bs cubea feh-
dfrsb f hetbrvbehr be `f rbf`hifi, ibsib fqub` `ukfr iaeib tbekfdas `f apartuehifiib paebr be fggh÷e `as vf`arbs y `as gaeaghdhbetas gaestruhias.
Bsf bs `f úehgf dfebrf ib kbebrfr bxpbrhbeghfs qub trfesoardbe `f rbf`hifi be
`f guf` vhvhdas.
^aga sbethia tbeiræ paebr f ihf`akfr gaegbptas, ibsfkrbkfr gaetbehias, rbgarifr
pasturfs y futarbs sacrb f p`fehgfgh÷e y f bvf`ufgh÷e, sh bsb bjbrghgha ea eas shrvb
pfrf kuhfr eubstrf hetbrvbegh÷e gada praobshaef`bs.
^ar dæs pbquböf qub sbf `f bxpbrhbeghf a b` dfrkbe ib fggh÷e, sh tbebdas `fapartuehifi ib ibsbdpböfreas be b` ihsböa, hdp`bdbetfgh÷e a bvf`ufgh÷e ib uef
pa`äthgf púc`hgf, pracbdas gada p`fehgfr`f, pbesbdas y ihsböbdas oardfs ib vf-
`arfr`f (bvf`ufr`f) be tèrdheas ib su hdp`hgfeghf saghf`.
X sacrb taia, mfkfdas ib eubstrf hetbrvbegh÷e, uef tfrbf gräthgf, gaeghbetb, gad-
pfrthif y gae acjbthvas g`fras.
^ar ú`thda, rbsu`tf hetbrbsfetb rbkhstrfr `fs bxpbrhbeghfs, bsgrhchr`fs, gaetfr`fs
ib oardf arkfehzfif pfrf qub paifdas sbkuhr fprbeihbeia ib b``fs, f trfvès ib su
saghf`hzfgh÷e.
Sbobrbeghfs
Feibr Bkk, Bzbquhb`, Hetraiuggh÷e f `f p`feho hgfgh÷e bstrftèkhgf, Cubeas Fhrbs,@udbe, 6882.
Fdfyf, ^fu`f, ‐@f bvf`ufgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs gada bstrftbkhf pfrf `fhetbkrfgh÷e ib `f fggh÷e ib` kachbrea— Ybshs ib Dfbsträf, Rehvbrshifi Efgha-
ef` ib Kbebrf` Wfe Dfrtäe, 3>6>.Fdfyf, ^fu`f, ‐@f bvf`ufgh÷e ib `f kbsth÷e púc`hgf hetbkrfif f `as pragbsas ib
p`feho hgfgh÷e: su patbeghf` gada oar tf`bgbiarf ib `f hesthtughaef`hifi ibda-græthgf— ^aebeghf prbsbetfif be b` ]H Gaekrbsa Hetbrefghaef` ib` G@FI sa-
crb `f Sboardf ib` Bstfia y ib `f Fidhehstrfgh÷e ^úc`hgf, Kuftbdf`f, 3>>?.
Cf``frt, ]fvhbr, ‐Daib`as tb÷rhgas pfrf `f prægthgf ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e ib prakrf-dfs—, be Vuhd Crukuè y Jafe Wuchrfts (Gadps.) @bgturfs ib Kbsth÷e ^úc`hgf, Dfirhi, DF^/CAB, 688?.
Cbrefzzf, G`fuihf, ‐Dftbrhf` sacrb ^`fehohgfgh÷e bstrftèkhgf—, Dhdba, 3>>9.
Gfdpcb``, I.Y. y Wtfe`by, J., Bxpbrhdbetf` fei Vufsh-Bxpbrhdbetf` Ibshke oar Sbsbfrgm, Gmhgfka, Sfei DgEf``y, 68??.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
372
Graecfgm, @.J., Ibshkehek Bvf`ufthaes ao Biugfthaef` fei Waghf` ^rakrfds,Wfe Orfeghsga, Jassby-Cfss, 68=3f
Gueh`` Krfu Eurhf y Waehf Asphef, ‐Ref fkbeif ib hevbsthkfgh÷e sacrb `f bvf-`ufgh÷e ib `as rbsu`tfias ib `f kbsth÷e púc`hgf—, Eurhf Gueh` Krfu y WaehfAsphef (Bis.) Bvf`ufgh÷e ib rbsu`tfias pfrf uef kbsth÷e púc`hgf daibref y
ibdagræthgf. Bxpbrhbeghfs `ftheafdbrhgfefs, Gfrfgfs, G@FI / FBGH / DF^/ OHHF^^, 3>>7.
Kfrehbr, @baefria, ‐B` bspfgha ib `f pa`äthgf be `f kbsth÷e púc`hgf—, be @uhsGfr`as Crbssbr-^brbhrf bt f` (Bis.) ^a`äthgf y kbsth÷e púc`hgf, Cubeas Fhrbs,G@FI / Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf, 3>>9.
Kfrrbt÷e, Dfeub` Fetaeha, ‐@f trfesoardfgh÷e ib `f fggh÷e ga`bgthvf be Fdèrh-gf @fthef—, Sbvhstf ib `f GB^F@, ;?: ;-39, 3>>3.
Jbofturf ib Kfchebtb ib Dhehstras, ‐Bvf`ufgh÷e ib `f kbsth÷e púc`hgf: gaegbp-tuf`hzfgh÷e, daif`hifibs y eubvfs pbrspbgthvfs— Iagudbetas ib fpaya f `f
gfpfghtfgh÷e, Cubeas Fhrbs, 688;.Hesthtuta ib Ibsfrra``a Sbkhaef` ib `f Rehvbrshifi ib Wbvh``f, ‐Dfeuf` pfrf `f
bvf`ufgh÷e y sbkuhdhbeta ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs—, Wbvh``f, 3>>9.
Dfjaeb, Khfeiadbehga, Bvhibeghf, frkudbetfgh÷e y pbrsufsh÷e be b` ihsböa ib
`fs pa`äthgfs, Dèxhga, IO: Oaeia ib Gu`turf Bgae÷dhgf, 68=8.
Dfrthebz Eakubhrf, S., ‐@f gambrbeghf y `f gaarihefgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`h-gfs, fspbgtas gaegbptuf`bs y bxpbrhbeghfs—, be @as ibsfoäas ib `f gaarihef-
gh÷e y `f hetbkrf`hifi ib `fs pa`äthgfs y kbsth÷e púc`hgf be Fdèrhgf @fthef ,Cubeas Fhrbs, ^raybgta ib Daibrehzfgh÷e ib` Bstfia / Jbofturf ib Kfchebtb
ib Dhehstras ib `f Efgh÷e, 3>6>.Dftus, Gfr`as, ^a`äthgf, ^`fehohgfgh÷e y Kachbrea, Gfrfgfs, Oueifgh÷e F@YF-IHS, 68=;.
Ehrbecbrk, A`kf, Jasbttb Crfwbrdfe y _ha`btf Suhz, Bvf`ufr pfrf `f trfesoardf-
gh÷e, Cubeas Fhrbs, ^hfias, 3>>>.
Asphef, Waehf, ‐Bvf`ufgh÷e ib `f kbsth÷e púc`hgf: gaegbptas y fp`hgfghaebs be b`gfsa `ftheafdbrhgfea—, Sbvhstf ib` G@FI Sboardf y Ibdagrfghf, 68: 3-68,3>>6.
^hgmfria Duöhz , Fr`bttb, Bvf`ufgh÷e ib` hdpfgta saghf`, b` vf`ar ib `as mudfeas
fetb `f grhshs y b` fjustb, Cubeas Fhrbs, @udbe Mudfehtfs, 688;.Wgrhvbe, D., ‐Ymb Dbtmaia`aky ao Bvf`ufthae—, ^brspbgthvbs ae Gurrhgu`ud
Bvf`ufthae , FBSF Daeakrfpm Wbrhbs ae Gurrhgu`ud Bvf`ufthae, 6, Gmhgfka,Sfei DgEf``y, 68?;.
Wtflb, S.B., ^rakrfd Bvf`ufthae, ^frthgu`fr`y Sbspaeshvb Bvf`ufthae, be [.C.Iaglrb`` & I. Mfdh`tae (Bis.), Sbtmhelhek Biugfthaef` Sbsbfrgm , @aeiae,Maiibr & Wtaukmtae, 68=>f.
Wuchrfts, Jafe, ‐±^aibdas uth`hzfr `as hestrudbetas ib bvf`ufgh÷e gada pf`fegfib kachbrea ib` sbgtar púc`hga1— ^aebeghf prbsbetfif be b` Gaekrbsa Hetbr-
efghaef` ib` G@FI, Dfirhi, 3>>9.
Wuchrfts, Jafe, Feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs y bo hgfghf ib `f Fidhehstrfgh÷e,Dfirhi, DF^, 6889.
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
37?
_h`fs, Gfr`as, Ibspuès ib` Eba`hcbrf`hsda: Bstfia y pragbsas pa`äthgas be Fdè-
rhgf @fthef, @feús, Bihghaebs RE@f, 3>66.
[bhss, Gfra` M., Bvf`ufthae. Dbtmais oar Wtuiyek ^rakrfds fei ^a`hghbs, EbwXarl, ^rbethgb-Mf``, Heg., 688;.
[ma`by, J.W.. Bvf`ufthae fei Boobgthvb ^uc`hg Dfefkbdbet . Castae. @htt`bCrawe. 68=7.
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
37;
ÄEIHGB
Gfpätu`a H. Gaegbptas hetraiugtarhas ...........................................................66
6. B` Bstfia .............................................................................................. 63
6.6. B` Bstfia: uef rbvhsh÷e mhst÷rhgf .................................................. 67
6.3. B` Bstfia gada curagrfghf y gada rb`fghaebs saghf`bs .............. 62
3. B` shstbdf y b` rèkhdbe pa`äthga ...........................................................6=
3.6. @fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs be ue rèkhdbe ibdagræthga .......................36
7. Be rbsudbe .......................................................................................... 3;
Gfpätu`a HH. B` bstuiha ib `fs hesthtughaebs pa`äthgfs
be gaetbxtas ibdagræthgas ..........................................................................76
6. Hetraiuggh÷e ..........................................................................................76
3. Whstbdfs ib kachbrea ............................................................................76
3.6. @f ihstrhcugh÷e marhzaetf` ib` paibr: pfr`fdbetfrhsda
y prbshibeghf`hsda ......................................................................... 73
3.6.6. ^fr`fdbetfrhsda ........................................................................ 773.6.3. ^rbshibeghf`hsda ....................................................................... 7?
3.6.7. B` ibcftb prbshibeghf`hsda-pfr`fdbetfrhsda ........................... 7=
3.6.9. B` sbdhprbshibeghf`hsda ............................................................96
3.3. @f ihstrhcugh÷e vbrthgf` ib` paibr:
obibrf`hsda y uehtfrhsda ................................................................ 93
7. Sbprbsbetfgh÷e pa`äthgf ........................................................................ 97
7.6. ^frthias ^a`äthgas .......................................................................... 99
7.3. Krupas ib hetbrbsbs y garparfghaebs ........................................... 9?
7.7. @f curagrfghf gada fgtar y gada hesthtugh÷e ............................. 9;
9. Be rbsudbe .......................................................................................... 98
Gfpätu`a HHH. @fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: b` ibsfrra``a ib
ue gfdpa ihsghp`hefr ................................................................................. 27
6. Hetraiuggh÷e. ........................................................................................ 27
3. @fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs: uef ibehgh÷e gaegbptuf` ............................... 223.6. ^a`äthgf: ue gaegbpta gae dú`thp`bs shkehgfias ......................... 22
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
37=
3.3. ±Vuè bs uef pa`äthgf púc`hgf1 Be cusgf ib uef ibehgh÷e .......... 2;
3.7. ^a`äthgf púc`hgf, paibr y shstbdf pa`äthga .....................................?6
3.7.6. Ea ibghsh÷e, paibr y pa`äthgf púc`hgf ........................................ ?2
3.9. ^a`äthgf púc`hgf y Bstfia ............................................................. ?;
7. @f gaestruggh÷e y bva`ugh÷e ib ue gfdpa ihsghp`hefr:`fs ghbeghfs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ......................................................... ?8
7.6. Gaeaghdhbeta ib y gaeaghdhbeta be b` pragbsa ib `f pa`äthgf ..... ;6
9. Feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs y tadf ib ibghsh÷e ............................... ;7
9.6. @as pfrfihkdfs ib feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs ....................................... ;2
9.3. @as daib`as ib gaeiugtf ib` fef`hstf ib pa`äthgfs ..................... ;?
2. G÷da bstuihfr y què bstuihfr ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ....................... ;;
?. Be rbsudbe .......................................................................................... =6
Gfpätu`a H_. B` ^ragbsa ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ........................................ =2
6. Hetraiuggh÷e ......................................................................................... =2
3. B` beoaqub pragbsf` ib `f pa`äthgf púc`hgf:
sus aräkbebs y bva`ugh÷e ..................................................................... =?
7 @f ibehgh÷e ib` prac`bdf (a b` arhkbe ib `f pa`äthgf f trfvès
ib `f prac`bdfthzfgh÷e ib `f rbf`hifi) .................................................86
9. @f oardfgh÷e ib `f fkbeif .................................................................. 892. Gaestruggh÷e ib apghaebs ib pa`äthgf .................................................. 8=
?. @f tadf ib `f ibghsh÷e ...................................................................... 6>>
;. @f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ib `f pa`äthgf .......................................................6>3
;.6. @f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e gada prac`bdf ...........................................6>3
;.3. @as bstuihas sacrb b` pragbsa ib hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ..................... 6>9
;. 7. @fs pbrspbgthvfs pfrf b` feæ`hshs ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e ............6>;
;.9. B` èxhta ib `f hdp`bdbetfgh÷e .....................................................66>
=. @f bvf`ufgh÷e ......................................................................................663
=.6. Bva`ugh÷e ib `as fcarifjbs be tarea f `f bvf`ufgh÷e...................667
Gfpätu`a _. Sfghaef`hifi y tadf ib ibghshaebs .........................................668
6. Hetraiuggh÷e ........................................................................................668
3. Sfghaef`hifi y pragbsas ib tadf ib ibghsh÷e be b` feæ`hshs ib `fs pa`äthgfs
púc`hgfs ............................................................................................................ 63>
3.6. @f tbaräf ib `f b`bggh÷e rfghaef` .................................................6363.3. Hegrbdbetf`hsda ........................................................................ 633
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H EYSAIRGGH×E F@ FEÆ@HWHW IB ^A@ÄYHGFW ^ÚC@HGFW
378
3.7. ragbsas b hesthtughaebs ............................................................. 639
7. Sfghaef`hifi y paibr: F daia ib hetraiuggh÷e ................................ 63=
7.6. @f hibf ib gfdpa ib jubka ......................................................... 67>
9. Fgtarbs y gaapbrfgh÷e ....................................................................... 679
9.6. Daib`as bspfghf`bs .................................................................... 6799.3. Ybaräf ib Jubkas ........................................................................672
9.7. ^rheghpf`/fkbetb ..........................................................................67=
9.9. B` tfdföa ib as krupas. _az y Wf`hif .......................................678
9.2. Ibpbeibeghf ib `f trfybgtarhf (^ftm Ibpbeibegb) .....................69>
9.?. Hesthtughaebs pa`äthgfs y ibghsh÷e ................................................696
2. Be rbsudbe .........................................................................................693
Gfpätu`a _H. Ybaräfs pfrf b` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs .........................69;
6. Hetraiuggh÷e ........................................................................................69;
3. @fs gräthgfs f` daib`a sbgubeghf` ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ................69=
3.6. ±Dfrga gaegbptuf`, tbaräf a daib`a1 .........................................62>
3.3. Whdp`hgfgh÷e vbrsus gadp`bjhifi .............................................626
3.7. B` ra` ib `fs hibfs y b` fprbeihzfjb ..............................................623
7. Be cusgf ib tbaräfs pfrf b` feæ`hshs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ...................627
7.6. B` beoaqub hesthtughaef` ............................................................ 6297.3. B` beoaqub ib rbibs ib pa`äthgfs ................................................6?>
7.7. @f tbaräf ib f gaestruggh÷e saghf` .............................................6?2
7.9. B` dfrga ib fs gaf`hghaebs pradatarfs .....................................6;3
9. Be rbsudbe .........................................................................................6;=
Gfpätu`a _HH. @as pragbsas pa`äthgas ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs
be `f Frkbethef ........................................................................................6=7
6. Hetraiuggh÷e ........................................................................................6=7
3. ^a`äthgfs púc`hgfs be Frkbethef ..........................................................6=9
3.6. @as ghg`as ib `f pa`äthgf frkbethef: ib` gfphtf`hsda a`hkfrquhga f `f
rbgupbrfgh÷e ib` Bstfia ....................................................................................6=?
7. B` pragbsa ib oardu`fgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs be f Frkbethef .....................687
7.6. ^frthias pa`äthgas .........................................................................682
7.3. B` ^aibr Bjbguthva ..................................................................... 68?
7.7. Kacbrefiarbs ..............................................................................68=7.9. B` Gaekrbsa ............................................................................... 688
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OBSEFEIA D. JFHDB, KRWYF_A IROARS , DFSYÄE F@BWWFEISA X FR@F FDFXF
39>
7.2. B` aibr Juihghf` ........................................................................ 3>>
7.?. @f curagrfghf ............................................................................. 3>>
7.;. Fgtarbs ib `f Waghbifi Ghvh` .......................................................3>6
9. ^rheghpf`bs frbefs ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ............................................ 3>9
9.6. B` jubka sgf` obibrf` ................................................................. 3>99.3. B` jubka ib` prbsupubsta púc`hga ............................................... 3>2
2. Be rbsudbe ........................................................................................ 3>?
Gfpätu`a _HHH. @f p`fehgfgh÷e y bvf`ufgh÷e ib `fs
pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ......................................................................................367
6. Hetraiuggh÷e ........................................................................................367
3. @f p`fehgfgh÷e ib `fs pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ...........................................3693.6. @as dadbetas ib `f p`fehgfgh÷e ..............................................36;
3.3. @f p`fehgfgh÷e eardfthvf y `f p`fehgfgh÷e bstrftèkhgf ......... 33>
3.7. Ihstheghaebs betrb `fs pf`fcrfs p`fe, prakrfdf y praybgta ....... 333
3.9. ^a`äthgf y p`fehgfgh÷e .............................................................. 339
7. @f bvf`ufgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs púc`hgfs ................................................... 339
7.6. Crbvb mhstarhf ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e ................................................. 33?
7.3. Re daib`a hetbkrf` ib bvf`ufgh÷e ib pa`äthgfs .......................... 37>
7.7. @f trfesvbrsf`hifi ib `f bvf`ufgh÷e: dhrfif hetbkrfifib` kachbrea y `f kbsth÷e .............................................................. 37>
7.9. @f bvf`ufgh÷e, su rb`fgh÷e gae `f dbjarf ib `f kbsth÷e púc`hgf
y b` ra` ib` Bstfia ...................................................................... 373
9. Be rbsudbe ........................................................................................ 377
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