Download - Suport de Curs, Sem 1, An 1 Engl

INSTITUTUL DE TIINE PENALE I CRIMINOLOGIE APLICAT

CATEDRA tiine socio-umaNe i limbi moderne

Lector univ., magistru Maria Arachelov

Limba strin (limba englez)

(Teze pentru studenii Institutului de Criminologie, an. I, sem I, specialitile: Drept, SSP, Psihologie)

CHIINU 2013

Theme: 1. University: the basicsI. Text:

A different way of learning and teaching

At university, you ought to have sufficient maturity to work on your own for longer periods, without somebody in the room to guide you. You have more responsibility for your own success than at school. This can be frightening, but it can also make you feel free. You dont always have to do things in the way that people tell you. You have more freedom to study in the ways that are best for you.

Making choices

It is your responsibility to make sensible choices of options within your programme, as well as to plan extracurricular activities. Your choices will affect your studies and your future career. Its a big responsibility but its exciting to be more in control of your own life.

Assessment

Different courses have different ways of assessing your work. Exams are usually at the end of each term, but some courses leave exams until the end of the year. If the course assesses your coursework, you usually have to hand in essays, reports, project work, or you have to make an oral presentation. You mustnt hand in your work late because university regulations do not usually permit it.Essential characteristics for success at university

Whether you are a mathematician, a historian or a phisicist, here are some qualities that all your professors, tutors, and lecturers will want to see: Independence: you must be able to stand on your own two feet.

Self-motivation: you have to be able to work alone a lot.

Ability to work with others: you must be ready to organise study sessions with friends.

Ability to set objectives to improve your work.

Ability to organise your time: you need to manage your time well. You must know when and where you should be for classes, events and exans and you must know when you have to hand in your work.

Ability to decide when, how, and where you learn best.

Worries about studying and learning

It is important to give yourself time to feel comfortable. You should plan your own life instead of worrying about how well other students are doing. Some people play psychological games by saying that they do not work and can write essays the night before handing them in. Very few people can actually do this and you shouldnt really try.

Meanwhile, many other students will be worrying about some aspect of their study and it helps to be able to talk about your worries and problems. So you should find time to meet other students in your classes. All students and trainees make mistakes at times but think of the course as an adventure.

Other worries

University students often have to combine their studies with work and family obligations. Students have to be very organised and creative to solve some of these problems. Students Services normally offer advice on finding work, on grants, childcare, health care, disability, discrimination and many other problems that come up.II. Grammar

Articles

English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns.

the = definite article

a/an = indefinite article

For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book.

Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the.

"A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind.

Indefinite Articles: a and an

"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example:

"My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet.

"Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available.

"When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.

Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So...

a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle an + nouns starting with silent "h": an hour

a + nouns starting with a pronounced "h": a horse

In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," you can use an. However, a is more commonly used and preferred.

A historical event is worth recording.

Remember that these rules also apply when you use acronyms:

Introductory Composition at Purdue (ICaP) handles first-year writing at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors.

Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds:

An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst.

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:

a broken egg

an unusual problem

a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)

Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group:

I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.)

Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.)

Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists.)

Definite Article: theThe definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example:

"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.

"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.

"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo.

Count and Noncount Nouns

The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.

"I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).

"He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).

"A/an" can be used only with count nouns.

"I need a bottle of water."

"I need a new glass of milk."

Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

Geographical use of theThere are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns.

Do not use the before:

names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States

names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St. names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn names of continents (Asia, Europe)

names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

Do use the before:

names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole geographical areas: the Middle East, the West deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian PeninsulaOmission of Articles

Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:

Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian (unless you are referring to the population of the nation: "The Spanish are known for their warm hospitality.")

Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseballNames of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science

Present Simple Tense

How do we make the Present Simple Tense?

subject+auxiliary verb+main verb

dobase

There are three important exceptions:

1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.

2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the auxiliary.

3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.

Look at these examples with the main verb like:

subjectauxiliary verbmain verb

+I, you, we, theylikecoffee.

He, she, itlikescoffee.

-I, you, we, theydonotlikecoffee.

He, she, itdoesnotlikecoffee.

?DoI, you, we, theylikecoffee?

Doeshe, she, itlikecoffee?

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:

subjectmain verb

+IamFrench.

You, we, theyareFrench.

He, she, itisFrench.

-Iamnotold.

You, we, theyarenotold.

He, she, itisnotold.

?AmIlate?

Areyou, we, theylate?

Ishe, she, itlate?

How do we use the Present Simple Tense?

We use the present simple tense when:

the action is general

the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future

the action is not only happening now

the statement is always true

John drives a taxi.

pastpresentfuture

It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.

Look at these examples:

I live in New York.

The Moon goes round the Earth.

John drives a taxi.

He does not drive a bus.

We meet every Thursday.

We do not work at night.

Do you play football?

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the present simple tense for situations that are not general. We can use the present simple tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb "to be" in the present simple tense - some of them are general, some of them are now:

Am I right?Tara is not at home.You are happy.

pastpresentfuture

The situation is now.

I am not fat.Why are you so beautiful?Ram is tall.

pastpresentfuture

The situation is general. Past, present and future.

III. Tasks

1. Read and translate the text.

2. Retell the text.

3. Find additional information about this theme.

4. Apply Grammar knowledge into practice.

5. Talking Point: Grammar is a waste of time6. Writing Point: My BookprintTheme: 2. Parental aspirations

I. Text:

Educational qualifications are considered to be very important in the modern world. They are essential for people who want to find reasonably well-paid employment in the professions. For this reason, most parents try to get their children to work hard at school and achieve academic success by doing well in exams. Many parental aspirations also include their children going to university and graduating with a good degree.

Not all children, however, are capable of achieving academic success. This does not matter as long as parents are willing to accept this, but it is quite common for parents to think that all their children have to do is to study hard and they will pass their exams. All too often, they just succeed in causing too much stress in their offspring, with the result that the children either get ill or fail exams that they might otherwise have passed.

There are some children who are quite bright, but who are simply not interested in formal learning. Some might be of an artistic bent and wish to become an artist or designer while some might have a talent for acting. Others may show an aptitude for working with their hands, or want to start their own businesses and become entrepreneurs.

It is perfectly possible for children to achieve such ambitions. However, their parents may well have other ideas, which can lead to family conflict. Strangely enough, many parents are often reluctant to allow children to follow in their footsteps. For example, actors may not wish their children to have a career in the theatre, because of the uncertainty of the profession. Business people may feel that their children will have more status in an academic profession than in the world of commerce.

The opposite situation also arises. Parents who have worked hard to establish a business may want their children to become part of it, only to find that their sons and daughters prefer to look for completely different occupations.

Each generation has different ideas, making communication between the two extremely difficult. Thus, has arisen the aptly named generation gap.

II. Grammar

NounsSection 1: Definition of Count and Noncount nouns

Count or Noncount?

The main difference between count and noncount nouns is whether you can count the things they refer to or not.

Count nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. They usually refer to what can be perceived by the senses.

Examples:

table

finger

bottle

chair

remark

award

word

girl

candidate

Example sentences:

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just one.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)

I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)

Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted because they are thought of as wholes that can't be cut into parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning (for example, furniture).

Examples:

anger

courage

progress

furniture

education

weather

warmth

leisure

precision

Example sentences:

I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into? The question doesn't make any sense; therefore water is noncountable.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be counted.)

I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be counted.)

Think of the batter from which a cake is made. Before you put the batter into the oven, it can't be divided into parts because it's a thick liquid. Once it has been baked, it becomes solid enough to be cut into pieces. Noncount nouns are like cake batter; count nouns are like pieces of cake

Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule is absolute, there will be exceptions to the above definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is countable in another language may not be countable in English, and vice versa.

Section 2: Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns

Pluralizing

The RuleFrom the definitions of mass and count given above you may have already guessed the rule for pluralizing them:

most count nouns pluralize with -s

noncount nouns don't pluralize at all

This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of examples in the first section. Check this rule for yourself before reading further.

An Exception to the RuleFor a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both classes: they have both a noncount and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract and general and the count meaning concrete and specific. Compare:

Count I've had some difficulties finding a job. (refers to a number of specific problems)

The talks will take place in the Krannert building. (refers to a number of specific lectures)

The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds. (refers to a number of specific lights and noises)

Noncount She succeeded in school with little difficulty. (refers to the general idea of school being difficult)

I dislike idle talk. (refers to talking in general)

Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way light and sound behave in general)

Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a count sense has to do with classification. Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages: food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on. Examples:

There are several French wines to choose from. (= kinds of wine)

I prefer Sumatran coffees to Colombian. (= kinds of coffee)

We use a variety of different batters in our bakery. (= kinds of batter)

A recent entry into this class is homework, which at least among some students has the count plural homeworks in addition to its noncount use. (For example, "You're missing three of the homeworks from the first part of the course.") Because this usage is not firmly established and is likely to be considered nonstandard, you should check with your instructor before using it in writing.

A Revision of the RuleThese exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a count sense pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense do not.

The two possibilities in each half of the rule require different choices. If you know that a particular noun must be either count or noncount and cannot be both, you need to decide only if it is possible to pluralize the noun. On the other hand, if you know that a particular noun may be used in either a count or noncount sense, then you need to decide whether it is appropriate to pluralize.

To summarize, we may put the rule in a chart, like this:

Pluralizes with -sDoesn't Pluralize

Count NounXX

Count UseXX

Noncount NounXX

Noncount UseXX

Articles

Nouns and ArticlesChoosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a complex matter because the range of choices depends on whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural. Both count nouns (whether singular or plural) and noncount nouns take articles.

Combinations of Nouns and ArticlesThe following chart shows which articles go with which kinds of nouns. Notice that this, that, these, and those have been included because, like the, they mark the noun that they modify as definite, which means that the noun refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object known to both the writer and reader from their general knowledge or from what has been previously mentioned in a piece of writing.a, anthethis, thatthese, thoseno article

Count singularXXXXXX

Count pluralXXXXXX

NoncountXXXXXX

Examples:Count Singular:I ate an apple.I rode the bus.Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house over there.

Count Plural:I like to feed the birds.Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there.Cats are interesting pets.

Noncount:The water is cold.This milk is going sour.Music helps me relax.

Quantity Terms

The following chart shows which quantity words go with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity words can be used in combinations such as many more, many fewer, much more, and much less, any of which can be preceded by how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no can also be applied to many of these terms.much, less, little, a little, very littlesome, any, most, more, all, a lot of, no, none of themany, both, several, few/fewer/fewest, a few, one of the, a couple ofeach, every, any, one

Count singularXX

Count pluralXXXX

NoncountXXXX

Examples:Count Singular:I practice every day.I'd like one donut, please.

Count Plural:Can I have some chips?She has a lot of books, and many are autographed.I have fewer pencils than you.

Noncount:Can I have some water?She has a lot of strength, and much is due to her upbringing.I have less courage than you.

Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable

Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of meaning.CountableUncountable

There are two hairs in my coffee!hairI don't have much hair.

There are two lights in our bedroom.lightClose the curtain. There's too much light!

Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise.There are so many different noises in the city.noiseIt's difficult to work when there is so much noise.

Have you got a paper to read? (newspaper)Hand me those student papers.paperI want to draw a picture. Have you got some paper?

Our house has seven rooms.roomIs there room for me to sit here?

We had a great time at the party.How many times have I told you no?timeHave you got time for a cup of coffee?

Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's greatest works.workI have no money. I need work!

Drinks (coffee, water, orange juice) are usually uncountable. But if we are thinking of a cup or a glass, we can say (in a restaurant, for example):

Two teas and one coffee please.

Partitive Structure with Uncountable Nouns

To count or quantify an uncountable noun we use a unit of measurement - a measure word. For example, we cannot usually say two breads because bread is uncountable. So, if we want to specify a quantity of bread we use a measure word such as loaf or slice in a structure like two loaves of bread or two slices of bread. We call this structure a partitive structure.

p a r t i t i v es t r u c t u r e

quantitymeasure word(partitive, countable noun)"of"uncountable noun

two cups of coffeeseveral games of tennis a drop of water

We can use the same uncountable noun in different partitive expressions with different meanings. For example, a loaf of bread and a slice of bread are partitive expressions with different meanings. A loaf of bread is what we call a whole unit of bread that we buy from a baker. A slice of bread is what we call a smaller unit of bread after it has been cut from a loaf.

Here are some more examples:

Don't forget to buy a bag of rice when you go shopping.

Can I have one cup of coffee and two cups of tea.

The police found some items of clothing scattered around the floor.

I need a truck that will take at least three pieces of furniture.

You'd think a tablespoon of honey would be more than enough.

The word "partitive" indicates that only "part" of a whole is being referred to. The partitive structure using a measure word is common with uncountable nouns, but it can also be used with countable nouns, for example: a series of accidents, two boxes of matches, a can of worms.III. Tasks


2. Retell the text.



5. Talking Point: We are all basically selfish6. Writing Point: Children only go missing when parents are carelessTheme: 3. The benefits of chocolate

I. Text:

Most of us have a sweet tooth and a favourite form of confectionery is chocolate, whether this comes in the form of sweets, chocolate bars or cakes. The huge range of chocolate products on display in sweet shops and supermarkets shows us how popular chocolate is. Indeed, some of us are so fond of it that we become chocoholics.

We are regularly told that a diet containing too much sugar and too much fat is bad for us, and chocolate contains a great deal of both of these. Thus, we have got used to the idea that eating chocolate is a sinful pleasure.

Eating chocolate often makes us feel good. Even some health experts do not deny this, because it is thought to have a biochemical effect on the part of the brain that is concerned with pleasure. If you are feeling depressed, some chocolate can be a real tonic which cheers you up instantly. Unfortunately, this effect is transitory and you soon feel down again.

Nutritionists have tended to concentrate on the negative side effects of chocolate, pointing out that the combination of a high fat content and a high sugar content can be a cause of obesity in people who overindulge in it. They also remind us that foods which are high in fat can lead to heart disease. Chocolate is also said to cause headaches in some people, and is considered to be one of the main triggers of migraine.

After such bad news from dieticians, people who love to binge on chocolate will be relieved to hear that some doctors have now discovered some benefits in chocolate. Recent research suggests that chocolate, like aspirin, can delay blood clotting, making it potentially useful in preventing thrombosis. It has also been found that chocolate, like fruit and vegetables, is rich in flavonoids, which help to prevent heart attacks and strokes.

At last there is some good news for chocolate eaters! They can enjoy this delicious treat without feeling guilty, safe in the knowledge that it could be improving their health.

II. Grammar

Present Continuous

How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present continuous tense is:


bebase + ing



+Iamspeakingto you.

+Youarereadingthis.

-Sheisnotstayingin London.

-Wearenotplayingfootball.

?IshewatchingTV?

?Aretheywaitingfor John?

How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?

We use the present continuous tense to talk about:

action happening now

action in the future

Present Continuous tense for action happening now

a) for action happening exactly nowI am eating my lunch.

pastpresentfuture

The action is happening now.

Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same time...

...the pages are turning....the candle is burning....the numbers are spinning.

b) for action happening around nowThe action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.John is going out with Mary.

pastpresentfuture

The action is happening around now.


Muriel is learning to drive.

I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.Present Continuous tense for the future

We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future - if we add a future word!! We must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision and a plan before speaking.I am taking my exam next month.

pastpresentfuture

!!!

A firm plan or programme exists now.The action is in the future.


We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table..

They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.

When are you starting your new job?

In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision and plan were made before speaking.How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?

We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it's simple - we just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the present continuous tense.Basic ruleJust add -ing to the base verb:

work>working

play>playing

assist>assisting

see>seeing

be>being

Exception 1If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last letter:

stop

consonant

stressedvowel

consonant

(vowels = a, e, i, o, u)

stop>stopping

run>running

begin>beginning

Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not stressed:

open>opening

Exception 2If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:

lie>lying

die>dying

Exception 3If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:

come>coming

mistake>mistaking

Much, many, a lot of, (a) few, (a) littleMuch/Many: Much modifies only uncountable nouns. Many modifies only countable nouns.

"We don't have much time to get this done."

"Many Americans travel to Europe."Little/Few: Little modifies only uncountable nouns.

"He had little food in the house."

"The doctor had little time to think in the emergency room."

Few modifies only countable nouns.

"There are few doctors in town."

"Few students like exams."

A lot of/lots of: A lot of/lots of are informal substitutes for much and many. They are used with uncountable nouns when they mean much and with countable nouns when they mean many.

"They have lots of (much) money in the bank."

"A lot of (many) Americans travel to Europe."

"We got lots of (many) mosquitoes last summer."

"We got lots of (much) rain last summer."

III. Tasks


2. Retell the text.



5. Talking Point: Will there be enough food for everyone?6. Writing Point: Is GM food acceptable?Theme: 4. Modern celebrities

I. Text:

Television and the media are regularly blamed for what is thought to be wrong with modern society. So it comes as no surprise that they are held responsible for todays apparent obsession with celebrities.

The strange thing about many of those who are considered to be famous these days is that there is little reason or basis for their fame. Some of them may be film stars, football players or popstars. Others, though, seem to achieve fame on the grounds, for example, that they are a friend of someone famous, that they wear rather strange, flamboyant clothes, or that they behave exceptionally badly in public. Indeed it is notoriety rather than fame that some so-called celebrities achieve.

Of course, other generations have had their icons, but in the past fame seemed to be based more on talent and was longer lasting. The fame of todays celebrities is often very ephemeral indeed and they do not remain famous for long. They are in the headlines for a few weeks, and then fade from the scene. Compare this with the fame of some of the Hollywood greats, such as James Dean. Many of them remain legends long after their deaths.

The celebrities of today will do anything to go on appearing in the tabloids. Image is all-important to them and they just love publicity. Often they claim that they object to the paparazzi taking photographs, but they simply cannot live without the attentions of the media.

Once they are in the public eye, they are desperate to stay there, it seems. The worst thing that can happen to them is that attention is paid to someone else. Anything they do is subject to hype, image-makers being employed to ensure that their entire lives are conducted in a blaze of publicity.

They seek wealth as well as fame, although most of this is spent on their extravagant lifestyles. If all else fails, they give sensational interviews about being cured of alcohol addiction, drug addiction or eating disorders. Its sad but many of todays heroes are not very heroic.

II. Grammar

Adjectives

Adjective Order

There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:

1. before the noun2. after some verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste)adjectivebefore nounnounverbadjectiveafter verb

1I have abigdog.

2Snowiswhite.

Adjective After Verb

An adjective can come after some verbs, such as: be, become, feel, get, look, seem, smell, soundEven when an adjective comes after the verb and not before a noun, it always refers to and qualifies the subject of the sentence, not the verb.

Look at the examples below: subject verb adjective Ram is English.

Because she had to wait, she became impatient.

Is it getting dark?

The examination did not seem difficult.

Your friend looks nice.

This towel feels damp.

That new film doesn't sound very interesting.

Dinner smells good tonight.

This milk tastes sour.

It smells bad.

These verbs are "stative" verbs, which express a state or change of state, not "dynamic" verbs which express an action. Note that some verbs can be stative in one sense (she looks beautiful | it got hot), and dynamic in another (she looked at him | he got the money). The above examples do not include all stative verbs.

Note also that in the above structure (subject verb adjective), the adjective can qualify a pronoun since the subject may be a pronoun.

Adjective Before Noun

We often use more than one adjective before the noun:

I like big black dogs.

She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.

What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?

1. First of all, the general order is:

opinion, fact

"Opinion" is what you think about something. "Fact" is what is definitely true about something.

a lovely new dress (not a new lovely dress)

a boring French film (not a French boring film)

2. The "normal" order for fact adjectives is

other / size, shape, age, colour / origin / material / purpose a small 18th-century French coffee table

a rectangular black wooden box

3. Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives:

articles (a, the)

possessives (my, your...)

demonstratives (this, that...)

quantifiers (some, any, few, many...)

numbers (one, two, three)

Note that when we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with "and":

Many newspapers are black and white.

She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress.

Here are some examples of adjective order:

adjectiveshead noun

determineropinion adjectivesfact adjectives

othersize, shape, age, colouroriginmaterialpurpose*

twouglyblackguarddogs

awell-knownChineseartist

asmall, 18th-centuryFrenchcoffeetable

yourfabulousnewsportscar

alovelypink and greenThaisilkdress

someblackSpanishleatherridingboots

abig black and whitedog

thischeapplasticraincoat

anoldwoodenfishingboat

mynewtennisracket

awonderful15th-centuryArabicpoem

*often a noun used as an adjective

Not all grammarians agree about the exact order of adjectives, and the detailed rules are complicated. The rules on this page are for the normal, "natural" order of adjectives. These rules are not rigid, and you may sometimes wish to change the order for emphasis. Consider the following conversations:

Conversation 1A "I want to buy a round table."B "Do you want a new round table or an old round table?"

Conversation 2A "I want to buy an old table".B "Do you want a round old table or a square old table?"

Formation of Comparative Adjectives

There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective:

short adjectives: add "-er" long adjectives: use "more"Short adjectives

1-syllable adjectivesold, fast

2-syllable adjectives ending in -yhappy, easy

Normal rule: add "-er"old older

Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -rlate later

Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonantbig bigger

Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to ihappy happier

Long adjectives

2-syllable adjectives not ending in -ymodern, pleasant

all adjectives of 3 or more syllablesexpensive, intellectual

Normal rule: use "more"modern more modernexpensive more expensive

With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more':

quiet quieter/more quiet

clever cleverer/more clever

narrow narrower/more narrow

simple simpler/more simple

ExceptionThe following adjectives have irregular forms:

good better

well (healthy) better

bad worse

far farther/further

Formation of Superlative Adjectives

As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative adjective:

short adjectives: add "-est" long adjectives: use "most"We also usually add 'the' at the beginning.

Short adjectives

1-syllable adjectivesold, fast

2-syllable adjectives ending in -yhappy, easy

Normal rule: add "-est"old the oldest

Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -stlate the latest

Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonantbig the biggest

Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to ihappy the happiest

Long adjectives

2-syllable adjectives not ending in -ymodern, pleasant

all adjectives of 3 or more syllablesexpensive, intellectual

Normal rule: use "most"modern the most modernexpensive the most expensive

With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most':

quiet the quietest/most quiet

clever the cleverest/most clever

narrow the narrowest/most narrow

simple the simplest/most simple

ExceptionThe following adjectives have irregular forms:

good the best

bad the worst

far the farthest/furthest

III. Tasks


2. Retell the text.



5. Talking Point: Fame. Is it the new religion?

6. Writing Point: Secrets of SuccessTheme: 5. Discrimination against disability

I. Text:

Many of us are guilty of discriminating against disabled people. Whether intentionally or not, people with disabilities are often treated extremely patronizingly by abled people, as though they were very young children. For example, a person in a wheelchair may be completely ignored and questions such as Does he want black or white coffee? are put to a companion rather than directly to the person.

If people in wheelchairs can get around by themselves and so are able to travel alone, they are frequently treated as though they are invisible. Other people simply push rudely past them without paying any attention to them.

Obviously, people with disabilities will want to do the same things as able-bodied people. Thus, they will wish to visit museums, art galleries, restaurants and other public places. However, gaining access to such places can be far from easy. Often, the entrance to public buildings is at the top of some steps, which can prove to be an obstacle to someone who is in a wheelchair. Admittedly, some buildings now provide ramps, which makes life much easier.

Since doorways are often rather narrow, wheelchair-users have difficulty in negotiating them. Having succeeded in entering a building, disabled people might well meet another obstacle. The only means of getting from one floor to another, especially if it is an old building, might well be by a flight of stairs. Even if there is a lift as an alternative to the stairs, it may not be big enough to hold a wheelchair. One good thing about modern buildings is that they are usually equipped with reasonably roomy lifts, as well as escalators. This makes life easier for disabled people.

Nowadays, many disabled people are able to manage perfectly well at home by themselves. They might have a special lift to get to another floor, and a range of especially adapted appliances to help them fend for themselves.

It is when they attempt to go outside that obstacles to ordinary living begin. Society must do all in its power to remove these. Some provision is now being made for people with disabilities, but they need many more facilities. Otherwise society can be accused of ableism.

II. Grammar

Modal Verbs

Can, Could, Be able to

Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb be as a main verb). We include be able to here for convenience.

Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:

talk about possibility and ability

make requests

ask for or give permission

Structure of Can

subject + can + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").


+Icanplaytennis.

-Hecannotplaytennis.

can't

?Canyouplaytennis?

Notice that:

Can is invariable. There is only one form of can.

The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"). We cannot say: I run to play tennis.

Use of Can

can: Possibility and Ability

We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:

She can drive a car.

John can speak Spanish.

I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)

Can you hear me?

Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions about future ability.

A. Can you help me with my homework? (present)

B. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)

can: Requests and Orders

We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal (mainly between friends and family):

Can you make a cup of coffee, please.

Can you put the TV on.

Can you come here a minute.

Can you be quiet!

can: Permission

We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:

A. Can I smoke in this room?

B. You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.

(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is informal.)

Could

Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use could to:

talk about past possibility or ability

make requests

Structure of Could

subject + could + main verb



+My grandmothercouldswim.

-Shecould notwalk.

couldn't

?Couldyour grandmotherswim?

Notice that:

Could is invariable. There is only one form of could.


The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say: I could to play tennis

Use of Could

could: Past Possibility or Ability

We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were able or free to do:

I could swim when I was 5 years old.

My grandmother could speak seven languages.

When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't open the door.)

Could you understand what he was saying?

We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in the past. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use be able to (positive) and couldn't (negative). Look at these examples:

Past

GeneralSpecific Occasion

+My grandmother could speak Spanish.A man fell into the river yesterday. The police were able to save him.

-My grandmother couldn't speak Spanish.A man fell into the river yesterday. The police couldn't save him.

could: Requests

We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The use of could in this way is fairly polite (formal):

Could you tell me where the bank is, please?

Could you send me a catalogue, please?

Be able to

Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the verb be plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at be able to here because we sometimes use it instead of can and could.

We use be able to:

to talk about ability

Structure of Be able to

The structure of be able to is:

subject + be + able + infinitive

subjectbemain verbableadjectiveinfinitive

+Iamableto drive.

-Sheis notableto drive.

isn't

?Areyouableto drive?

Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example:

I was able to drive...

I will be able to drive...

I have been able to drive...

Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form:

I would like to be able to speak Chinese.

Use of Be able to

Be able to is not a modal auxiliary verb. We include it here for convenience, because it is often used like "can" and "could", which are modal auxiliary verbs.

be able to: ability

We use be able to to express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning: having the power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I am able to swim", it is like saying "I can swim". We sometimes use "be able to" instead of "can" or "could" for ability. "Be able to" is possible in all tenses - but "can" is possible only in the present and "could" is possible only in the past for ability. In addition, "can" and "could" have no infinitive form. So we use "be able to" when we want to use other tenses or the infinitive. Look at these examples:

I have been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect)

You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple)

I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive)

Have to (objective obligation)

We often use have to to say that something is obligatory, for example:

Children have to go to school.

Note that we can use the have to expression in all tenses, for example:I have to, I had to, I have had to, I will have to

Have to is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience, but in fact it is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb. In the have to structure, "have" is a main verb. The structure is:

subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive (with to)

Look at these examples in the simple tense:

subjectauxiliary verbmain verb haveinfinitive (with to)

+Shehasto work.

-Ido nothaveto seethe doctor.

?Didyouhaveto goto school?

Use of Have to

In general, have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of have to is obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example, the Law or school rules). Have to is objective. Look at these examples:

In France, you have to drive on the right.

In England, most schoolchildren have to wear a uniform.

John has to wear a tie at work.

In each of the above cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion or idea. The obligation is imposed from outside.

We can use have to in all tenses, and also with modal auxiliaries. We conjugate it just like any other main verb. Here are some examples:

subjectauxiliary verbmain verb haveinfinitive

past simpleIhadto workyesterday.

present simpleIhaveto worktoday.

future simpleIwillhaveto worktomorrow.

present continuousSheishavingto wait.

present perfectWehavehadto changethe time.

modal (may)Theymayhaveto doit again.

Must (subjective obligation)

We often use must to say that something is essential or necessary, for example:

I must go.

Structure of Must

Must is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure is:

subject + must + main verb

The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").


subjectauxiliary mustmain verb

Imustgohome.

Youmustvisitus.

Wemuststopnow.

Like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by to. So, we say:

I must go now. (not *I must to go now.)

Use of Must

In general, must expresses personal obligation. Must expresses what the speaker thinks is necessary. Must is subjective. Look at these examples:

I must stop smoking.

You must visit us soon.

He must work harder.

In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the person speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from outside.

It is sometimes possible to use must for real obligation, for example a rule or a law. But generally we use have to for this.

We can use must to talk about the present or the future. Look at these examples:

I must go now. (present)

I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)

We cannot use must to talk about the past. We use have to to talk about the past.

Must not, Mustn't (prohibition)

We use must not to say that something is not permitted or allowed, for example:

Passengers must not talk to the driver.

Structure of Must not

Must is an auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure for must not is:

subject + must not + main verb

The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").

Must not is often contracted to mustn't.


subjectauxiliary must + notmain verb

Imustn'tforgetmy keys.

Youmustn'tdisturbhim.

Studentsmust notbelate.

NB: like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by "to". So, we say:

You mustn't arrive late. (not You mustn't to arrive late.)

Use of Must not

Must not expresses prohibition - something that is not permitted, not allowed. The prohibition can be subjective (the speaker's opinion) or objective (a real law or rule). Look at these examples:

I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective)

You mustn't watch so much television. (subjective)

Students must not leave bicycles here. (objective)

Policemen must not drink on duty. (objective)

We can use must not to talk about the present or the future:

Visitors must not smoke. (present)

I mustn't forget Tara's birthday. (future)

We cannot use must not to talk about the past. We use other structures to talk about the past, for example:

We were not allowed to enter.

I couldn't park outside the shop.

Shall versus Will

The rule below about shall/will also applies to should/would, as described at the end.

People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference between shall and will, or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such as "Shall I call a taxi?"). This is not really true. The difference between shall and will is often hidden by the fact that we usually contract them in speaking with 'll. But the difference does exist.

The truth is that there are two conjugations for the verb will:

1st Conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact)

PersonVerbExampleContraction

SingularIshallI shall be in London tomorrow.I'll

youwillYou will see a large building on the left.You'll

he, she, itwillHe will be wearing blue.He'll

PluralweshallWe shall not be there when you arrive.We shan't

youwillYou will find his office on the 7th floor.You'll

theywillThey will arrive late.They'll

2nd Conjugation (subjective, strong assertion, promise or command)

PersonVerbExampleContraction

SingularIwillI will do everything possible to help.I'll

youshallYou shall be sorry for this.You'll

he, she, itshallIt shall be done.It'll

PluralwewillWe will not interfere.We won't

youshallYou shall do as you're told.You'll

theyshallThey shall give one month's notice.They'll

It is true that this difference is not universally recognized. However, let those who make assertions such as "People in the USA never use 'shall'" peruse a good US English dictionary, or many US legal documents which often contain phrases such as:

Each party shall give one month's notice in writing in the event of termination.

Note that exactly the same rule applies in the case of should and would. It is perfectly normal, and somewhat more elegant, to write, for example:

I should be grateful if you would kindly send me your latest catalogue.

Would

Would is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use would mainly to:

talk about the past

talk about the future in the past

express the conditional mood

We also use would for other functions, such as:

expressing desire, polite requests and questions, opinion or hope, wish and regret...

Structure of Would

subject + would + main verb



+Shewouldliketea.

'd

-Shewould notlikewhisky.

wouldn't

?Wouldshelikecoffee?

Notice that:

Would is never conjugated. It is always would or 'd (short form).


The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:I would to like coffee.

Be careful! Would and had have the same short form 'd:He'd finished. (He had finished.)He'd like coffee. (He would like coffee.)

Use of Would

would: Talking about the past

We often use would as a kind of past tense of will or going to:

Even as a boy, he knew that he would succeed in life.

I thought it would rain so I brought my umbrella.

Using would as as a kind of past tense of will or going to is common in reported speech:

She said that she would buy some eggs. ("I will buy some eggs.")

The candidate said that he wouldn't increase taxes. ("I won't increase taxes.")

Why didn't you bring your umbrella? I told you it would rain! ("It's going to rain.")

We often use would not to talk about past refusals:

He wanted a divorce but his wife would not agree.

Yesterday morning, the car wouldn't start.

We sometimes use would (rather like used to) when talking about habitual past behaviour:

Every weekday my father would come home from work at 6pm and watch TV.

Every summer we'd go to the seaside.

Sometimes she'd phone me in the middle of the night.

We would always argue. We could never agree.

would: Future in past

When talking about the past we can use would to express something that has not happened at the time we are talking about:

In London she met the man that she would one day marry.

He left 5 minutes late, unaware that the delay would save his life.

would: Conditionals

We often use would to express the so-called second and third conditionals:

If he lost his job he would have no money.

IfI had won the lotteryI would have bought a car.

Using the same conditional structure, we often use would when giving advice:

I wouldn't eat that if I were you.

If I were in your place I'd refuse.

If you asked me I would say you should go.

Sometimes the condition is "understood" and there does not have to be an "if" clause:

Someone who liked John would probably love John's father. (If someone liked John they would probably love John's father.)

You'd never know it. (for example: If you met him you would never know that he was rich.)

Why don't you invite Mary? I'm sure she'd come.

Although there is always a main verb, sometimes it is understood (not stated) as in:

I'd like to stay. | I wish you would. (would stay)

Do you think he'd come? | I'm sure he would. (would come)

Who would help us? | John would. (would help us)

would: Desire or inclination

I'd love to live here.

Would you like some coffee?

What I'd really like is some tea.

would: Polite requests and questions

Would you open the door, please? (more polite than: Open the door, please.)

Would you go with me? (more polite than: Will you go with me?)

Would you know the answer? (more polite than: Do you know the answer?)

What would the capital of Nigeria be? (more polite than: What is the capital of Nigeria?)

would: Opinion or hope

I would imagine that they'll buy a new one.

I suppose some people would call it torture.

I would have to agree.

I would expect him to come.

Since you ask me I'd say the blue one is best.

would: Wish

I wish you would stay. (I really want you to stay. I hope you will stay.)

They don't like me. I'm sure they wish I'd resign.

Note that all of these uses of would express some kind of distance or remoteness:

remoteness in time (past time)

remoteness of possibility or probability

remoteness between speakers (formality, politeness)

would: Presumption or expectation

That would be Jo calling. I'll answer it.

We saw a police helicopter overhead yesterday morning. | Really? They would have been looking for those bank robbers.

would: Uncertainty

He would seem to be getting better. (less certain than: He seems to be getting better.)

It would appear that I was wrong. (less certain than: It appears that I was wrong.)

would: Derogatory

They would say that, wouldn't they?

John said he didn't steal the money. | Well, he would, wouldn't he?

would that: Regret (poetic/rare) - with clause

This rare, poetic or literary use of would does not have the normal structure:

Would that it were true! (If only it were true! We wish that it were true!)

Would that his mother had lived to see him become president.

Should

Should is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use should mainly to:

give advice or make recommendations

talk about obligation

talk about probability and expectation

express the conditional mood

replace a subjunctive structure

Structure of Should

subject + should + main verb



+Heshouldgo.

-Heshould notgo.

shouldn't

?Shouldhego?

Notice that:

Should is invariable. There is only one form of should.


The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:He should to go.

There is no short form for should. The negative should not can be shortened to shouldn't.

Use of Should

should: Giving advice, opinions

We often use should when offering advice or opinions (similar to ought to):

You should see the new James Bond movie. It's great!

You should try to lose weight.

John should get a haircut.

He shouldn't smoke. And he should stop drinking too.

What should I wear?

They should make that illegal.

There should be a law against that.

People should worry more about global warming.

People often say "They should..." Usually, the "they" is anonymous and means the government, or the company, or somebody else - but not us!

should: Obligation, duty, correctness

Another use of should (also similar to ought to) is to indicate a kind of obligation, duty or correctness, often when criticizing another person:

You should be wearing your seat belt. (obligation)

I should be at work now. (duty)

You shouldn't have said that to her. (correctness)

He should have been more careful.

Should you be driving so fast?

should: Probability, expectation

We use should to indicate that we think something is probable (we expect it to happen):

Are you ready? The train should be here soon.

$10 is enough. It shouldn't cost more than that.

Let's call Mary. She should have finished work by now.

should: Conditionals

We sometimes use should (instead of would) for the first person singular (I) and first person plural (we) of some conditionals:

If I lost my job I should have no money.(If he lost his job he would have no money.)

We should be grateful if you could send us your latest catalogue.

This is not a very important distinction. (More about the use of shall/will and should/would.)

should: (If I were you I should...)

We often use the conditional structure "If I were you I should..." to give advice.

If I were you, I should complain to the manager.

If I were you I shouldn't worry about it.

I shouldn't say anything if I were you.

Note that we can omit "If I were you..." and just say:

I should complain to the manager.

I shouldn't worry about it.

I shouldn't say anything.

In these cases, the phrase "I should" really means something like "you should".

should: Pseudo subjunctive

We often use a special verb form called the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody wants to happen, hopes will happen or imagines happening, for example:

The president insists that the prime minister attend the meeting.

However, this is much more common in American English. British English speakers would probably convey the same idea using should:

The president insists that the prime minister should attend the meeting.


Subjunctivetypically American English Using shouldtypically British English

The president is insisting that pollution be reduced.The president is insisting that pollution should be reduced.

The manager recommended that Mary join the company.The manager recommended that Mary should join the company.

It is essential that we decide today.It is essential that we should decide today.

It was necessary that everyone arrive on time.It was necessary that everyone should arrive on time.

should: Why should..? | How should..?

If we don't understand (or agree with) something, we may use "Why should..?":

Why should it be illegal to commit suicide? It's your life.

"Why should..?" and "How should..?" can also indicate anger or irritation:

"Help me with this." | "Why should I?"

"Where are my keys?" | "How should I know?"III. Tasks


2. Retell the text.



5. Talking Point: Are left-handed people disadvantaged?6. Writing Point: Does society have double standards about male / female working conditions?Theme: 6. Computer crime

I. Text:

Computers have become so necessary to modern living that it is difficult to believe that they are a relatively recent invention. Undoubtedly, they have proved to be of great value, but they also have their disadvantages. For one thing, they have added to our already large number of crimes.

Hacking was the first computer crime that most of us became aware of. By using their computing expertise, people known as hackers can gain unauthorized access to someone elses computer and make use of the data which they find there. They may, for example, get hold of lists of the names of their competitors clients and use these to build up their own businesses, or they may use hacking as a form of industrial espionage to find out a rival companys plans. Other hacking activities may be more obviously criminal, in that hackers may log on to financial data in someone elses computer and either alter it illegally or use it for fraudulent purposes.

The possibility of serious financial fraud has been greatly increased by the modern practice of purchasing goods through the Internet. Apparently, the use of credit cards to pay for such purchases has led to record levels of fraud with a great many people being swindled out of a great deal of money. Banks are working hard to improve online security and to provide safeguards for customers, but fraudsters are working just as hard to improve their crooked techniques.

Many computer users worry in case their systems are affected by computer viruses. The people who introduce such bugs into other peoples computer programs may not intentionally be committing a crime, but may be doing so as an act of mischief or spite. The motive does not really matter to the people whose data has been deleted or altered or whose files have been corrupted.

Computers are part of a highly technical method of working, in which there are constantly new developments. Unfortunately, there is also a constant stream of new developments in the fraud industry associated with them. All computer users must be on their guard.

II. Grammar

Past Simple

How do we make the Past Simple Tense?

To make the past simple tense, we use:

past form onlyor

auxiliary did + base formHere you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular verbs and regular verbs:

V1baseV2pastV3past participle

regular verbworkexplodelikeworkedexplodedlikedworkedexplodedlikedThe past form for all regular verbs ends in -ed.

irregular verbgoseesingwentsawsanggoneseensungThe past form for irregular verbs is variable. You need to learn it by heart.

You do not need the past participle form to make the past simple tense. It is shown here for completeness only.

The structure for positive sentences in the past simple tense is:

subject+main verb

past

The structure for negative sentences in the past simple tense is:

subject+auxiliary verb+not+main verb

didbase

The structure for question sentences in the past simple tense is:

auxiliary verb+subject+main verb

didbase

The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did, he did etc). And the base form and past form do not change. Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work:


+Iwentto school.

Youworkedvery hard.

-Shedidnotgowith me.

Wedidnotworkyesterday.

?Didyougoto London?

Didtheyworkat home?

Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for negative and question sentences. To make a question, we exchange the subject and verb. Look at these examples:

subjectmain verb

+I, he/she/itwashere.

You, we, theywerein London.

-I, he/she/itwasnotthere.

You, we, theywerenothappy.

?WasI, he/she/itright?

Wereyou, we, theylate?

How do we use the Past Simple Tense?

We use the past simple tense to talk about an action or a situation - an event - in the past. The event can be short or long.

Here are some short events with the past simple tense:

The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday.She went to the door.We did not hear the telephone.Did you see that car?

pastpresentfuture

The action is in the past.

Here are some long events with the past simple tense:

I lived in Bangkok for 10 years.The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years.We did not sing at the concert.Did you watch TV last night?

pastpresentfuture

The action is in the past.

Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or seconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how long the event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We use the past simple tense when:

the event is in the past the event is completely finished we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event

In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we must use the past simple tense; we cannot use the present perfect.


I lived in that house when I was young.

He didn't like the movie.

What did you eat for dinner?

John drove to London on Monday.

Mary did not go to work yesterday.

Did you play tennis last week?

I was at work yesterday.

We were not late (for the train).

Were you angry?

Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the past simple tense. We may use the past continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the past simple tense for the action. Look at this example of the beginning of a story:

"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was cold. The door opened and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and ordered a drink at the bar. He sat down in the corner of the lounge and quietly drank his..."

This page shows the use of the past simple tense to talk about past events. But note that there are some other uses for the past simple tense, for example in conditional or if sentences.

Past Continuous

How do we make the Past Continuous Tense?

The structure of the past continuous tense is:

subject+auxiliary verb BE+main verb

conjugated in simple past tensepresent participle

waswerebase + ing

For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past continuous tense:


+IwaswatchingTV.

+Youwereworkinghard.

-He, she, itwasnothelpingMary.

-Wewerenotjoking.

?Wereyoubeingsilly?

?Weretheyplayingfootball?

How do we use the Past Continuous Tense?

The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. The action started before that moment but has not finished at that moment. For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and finished at 9pm.

At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV.

pastpresentfuture

8pm

At 8pm, I was in the middle of watching TV.

When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:

I was working at 10pm last night.

They were not playing football at 9am this morning.

What were you doing at 10pm last night?

What were you doing when he arrived?

She was cooking when I telephoned her.

We were having dinner when it started to rain.

Ram went home early because it was snowing.

Some verbs cannot be used in continuous/progressive tenses.

We often use the past continuous tense to "set the scene" in stories. We use it to describe the background situation at the moment when the action begins. Often, the story starts with the past continuous tense and then moves into the simple past tense. Here is an example:

" James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was blowing hard. Nobody was walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the killer in a telephone box..."

Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense

We often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense. We use the past continuous tense to express a long action. And we use the simple past tense to express a short action that happens in the middle of the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while.

In the following example, we have two actions:

1. long action (watching TV), expressed with past continuous tense

2. short action (telephoned), expressed with simple past tense

pastpresentfuture

Long action.

I was watching TV at 8pm.

8pm

You telephoned at 8pm.

Short action.

We can join these two actions with when:

I was watching TV when you telephoned.

(Notice that "when you telephoned" is also a way of defining the time [8pm].)

We use:

when + short action (simple past tense)

while + long action (past continuous tense)

There are four basic combinations:

I was walking past the carwhenit exploded.

Whenthe car explodedI was walking past it.

The car explodedwhileI was walking past it.

WhileI was walking past the carit exploded.

Notice that the long action and short action are relative.

"Watching TV" took a few hours. "Telephoned" took a few seconds.

"Walking past the car" took a few seconds. "Exploded" took a few milliseconds.

III. Tasks


2. Retell the text.



5. Talking Point: Is torture ever justified?

6. Writing Point: Should young criminals (under 18) be sent to prison?Theme: 7. Too much traffic

I. Text:

Many of the problems which face governments nowadays are international ones. Take traffic, for example. All the major cities of the world are having to try to find ways of dealing with too many vehicles and the congested roads which they cause.

A large number of the vehicles which clog our cities are private cars. Motorists are very reluctant to leave their precious cars behind and go to work on public transport, despite the constant traffic jams. They regard buses, trams and trains as being for other people, while they themselves like to drive from door to door. Thus, our roads are chock-a-block with traffic.

Of course, parking space is not always available. Some firms provide car parks or garages, where at least some of their employees can leave their cars. Most people, however, have to rely on public car parks, often multi-storey ones, or else try to park in the street. Since this is usually highly restricted, with many parking meters in evidence, parking is a source of frustration to many motorists.

People who are otherwise quite law-abiding are apt to take a bit of a risk when it comes to traffic offences. Thus, they ignore both signs that say NO PARKING and lines painted down the edge of the road which indicate parking restrictions. Should they be away from their cars for longer than the amount of time allowed by the parking meter, they are not worried until they see that the traffic warden has left a parking ticket on their windscreen, and realize that they will have to pay a fine.

The authorities in more and more cities are trying to keep ears out of the city centre. With this aim, they have pedestrianized large areas and introduced park-and-ride schemes so that people will leave their cars at the city boundary and complete their journey by bus.

Still, there are fears that ever-increasing traffic will cause gridlock in cities, particularly at rush hours. With so many tailbacks and bottle-necks on so many roads, motoring is no longer a pleasure. Why, then, do so many of us persist in using our cars?

II. Grammar

Present perfect

How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?

The structure of the present perfect tense is:


havepast participle

Here are some examples of the present perfect tense:


+IhaveseenET.

+Youhaveeatenmine.

-Shehasnotbeento Rome.

-Wehavenotplayedfootball.

?Haveyoufinished?

?Havetheydoneit?

Contractions with the present perfect tense

When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the subject and auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this when we write.

I haveI've

You haveYou've

He hasShe hasIt hasJohn hasThe car hasHe'sShe'sIt'sJohn'sThe car's

We haveWe've

They haveThey've

Here are some examples:

I've finished my work.

John's seen ET.

They've gone home.

He's or he's??? Be careful! The 's contraction is used for the auxiliary verbs have and be. For example, "It's eaten" can mean:

It has eaten. [present perfect tense, active voice]

It is eaten. [present tense, passive voice]

It is usually clear from the context.

How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the past and with the present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense:

1. experience

2. change

3. continuing situation

1. Present perfect tense for experience

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not interested in when you did something. We only want to know if you did it:

I have seen ET.He has lived in Bangkok.Have you been there?We have never eaten caviar.

pastpresentfuture

!!!

The action or state was in the past.In my head, I have a memory now.

Connection with past: the event was in the past.Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I know something about the event; I have experience of it.

2. Present perfect tense for change

We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:

I have bought a car.

pastpresentfuture

-+

Last week I didn't have a car.Now I have a car.

John has broken his leg.

pastpresentfuture

+-

Yesterday John had a good leg.Now he has a bad leg.

Has the price gone up?

pastpresentfuture

+-

Was the price $1.50 yesterday?Is the price $1.70 today?

The police have arrested the killer.

pastpresentfuture

-+

Yesterday the killer was free.Now he is in prison.

Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present.Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past.

Americans do not use the present perfect tense so much as British speakers. Americans often use the past tense instead. An American might say "Did you have lunch?", where a British person would say "Have you had lunch?"

3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a state that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue into the future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure.

I have worked here since June.He has been ill for 2 days.How long have you known Tara?

pastpresentfuture

The situation started in the past.It continues up to now.(It will probably continue into the future.)

Connection with past: the situation started in the past.Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.

For & Since with Present Perfect Tense

We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.

We use for to talk about a period of time - 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.

We use since to talk about a point in past time - 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.

forsince

a period of timea point in past time

x------------

20 minutes6.15pm

three daysMonday

6 monthsJanuary

4 years1994

2 centuries1800

a long timeI left school

everthe beginning of time

etcetc

Here are some examples:

I have been here for 20 minutes.

I have been here since 9 o'clock.

John hasn't called for 6 months.

John hasn't called since February.

He has worked in New York for a long time.

He has worked in New York since he left school.

For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses only.

III. Tasks


2. Retell the text.



5. Talking Point: In 60 years, cars will be history.6. Writing Point: Are strict anti-terror measures at airports effective?Theme: 8. Stress at work

I. Text:

Statistics show that more and more of us are suffering from stress and that much of this is caused by our jobs. It appears that many of us are working too hard and this is taking a toll on our health.

There is, experts tell us, simply too much pressure put on many employees these days. In many jobs, in sales or production departments, for example, unrealistic targets are set for the workforce. People are, in fact, trying to do the impossible and making themselves ill by doing so.

In many countries, more and more people are working longer hours. Some workers have to do this to cope with their workload, while others think that staying late will impress the boss so much that he will promote them. This extended presence in the workplace is known as presenteeism.

Such overwork often results in extreme fatigue, or even total exhaustion, with many people also suffering from insomnia. When the workers get home, instead of resting or enjoying a leisure pursuit, they simply cannot switch off. Their minds are still full of work worries.

Most people used to be able to leave behind the tension and anxiety of the workplace when they went on holiday. Unfortunately, modern communication systems, such as mobile phones and email, have made this a thing of the past. We find it almost impossible to leave our work behind.

Neither the body nor the mind can go on doing too much indefinitely. Workers reach a point beyond which they cannot cope, and have to take time off. Some may experience burn-out and some may become mentally ill. Meanwhile, a study by some American universities has shown that stress can weaken the immune system.

The fact that stress at work leads to illness is supported by findings by the British Health and Safety Executive. These indicate that 60 per cent of absence from work is a result of stress. It is time for us all to take stress seriously and to reconsider the ethos of modern working conditions. Working hard is important but everyone must realize that even productivity is less important than our health.

II. Grammar

Conditionals

First Conditional: real possibility

We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, it is morning. You are at home. You plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are some clouds in the sky. Imagine that it rains. What will you do?

IFconditionresult

present simpleWILL + base verb

Ifit rainsI will stay at home.

Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But the sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain. We use the present simple tense to talk about the possible future condition. We use WILL + base verb to talk about the possible future result. The important thing about the first conditional is that there is a real possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more examples (do you remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result] and [result IF condition]?):

IFconditionresult

present simpleWILL + base verb

IfI see MaryI will tell her.

IfTara is free tomorrowhe will invite her.

Ifthey do not pass their examtheir teacher will be sad.

Ifit rains tomorrowwill you stay at home?

Ifit rains tomorrowwhat will you do?

resultIFcondition

WILL + base verbpresent simple

I will tell MaryifI see her.

He will invite Taraifshe is free tomorrow.

Their teacher will be sadifthey do not pass their exam.

Will you stay at homeifit rains tomorrow?

What will you doifit rains tomorrow?

Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will, for example: If you are good today, you can watch TV tonight.

Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream

The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future, and the result of this condition. But there is not a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is it possible to win? No! No lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the future. So you can think about winning in the future, like a dream. It's not very real, but it's still possible.

IFconditionresult

past simpleWOULD + base verb

IfI won the lotteryI would buy a car.

Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past simple tense to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base verb to talk about the future result. The important thing about the second conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen.


IFconditionresult

past simpleWOULD + base verb

IfI married MaryI would be happy.

IfRam became richshe would marry him.

Ifit snowed next Julywould you be surprised?

Ifit snowed next Julywhat would you do?

resultIFcondition

WOULD + base verbpast simple

I would be happyifI married Mary.

She would marry Ramifhe became rich.

Would you be surprisedifit snowed next July?

What would you doifit snowed next July?

Sometimes, we use should, could or might instead of would, for example: If I won a million dollars, I could stop working.

Third Conditional: no possibility

The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition in the past that did not happen. That is why there is no possibility for this condition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the dream coming true.

Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win.

conditionresult

Past PerfectWOULD HAVE + Past Participle

IfI had won the lotteryI would have bought a car.

Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You did not win the lottery. So the condition was not true, and that particular condition can never be true because it is finished. We use the past perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use WOULD HAVE + past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the condition and result are impossible now.

Sometimes, we use should have, could have, might have instead of would have, for example: If you had bought a lottery ticket, you might have won.

Look at some more examples in the tables below:

IFconditionresult

past perfectWOULD HAVE + past participle

IfI had seen MaryI would have told her.

IfTara had been free yesterdayI would have invited her.

Ifthey had not passed their examtheir teacher would have been sad.

Ifit had rained yesterdaywould you have stayed at home?

Ifit had rained yesterdaywhat would you have done?

resultIFcondition

WOULD HAVE + past participlepast perfect

I would have told MaryifI had seen her.

I would have invited Taraifshe had been free yesterday.

Their teacher would have been sadifthey had not passed their exam.

Would you have stayed at homeifit had rained yesterday?

What would you have doneifit had rained yesterday?

Zero Conditional: certainty

We use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition is always true, like a scientific fact.

Take some ice. Put it in a saucepan. Heat the saucepan. What happens? The ice melts (it becomes water). You would b