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1. INTRODUCTION
2. EVOLUTION OF DIDACTICS
3. CLASSIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENTMETHODOLOGICAL TRENDS
3.1 Classical Tradition: A. Grammar-Translation MethodB. The Direct Method
C. The Reform Movement
3.2 Psychological Tradition: A. Audio-LingualismB. Cognitive-Code learning
3.3 The Humanistic Approach: A. Community LanguageLearning
B. The Silent Way
C. Suggestopedia
3.4 Language Acquisition Tradition: A. Natural Approach
3.5 Communicative Approaches: A. Functional-NotionalApproach
B. Communicative Method
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4. CONCLUSION
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The learning of foreign languages is not a consequence of our modern society;
it dates back to ancient times. Unfortunately, we do not know very much about the
learning process itself. Besides, this is not just a linguistic matter; there are other
disciplines involved such as psychology, anthropology, sociology and the like.
Although we will discuss a lot of methods and approaches to Second Language
Acquisition (2LA), it is difficult to find a method valid for all communities, ages,
purposes and so forth. All in all, there are more than fifty theories on 2LA different in
form, type, scope and source, and most of them are mutually exclusive.
How we describe a language is essential for the ulterior teaching of it. For a
long time grammar has been the main concern of language teaching courses,
following the classical methodology for studying dead languages such as Greek and
Latin. But things are nowadays different, as we will see below.
Some methods try to reproduce the conditions that favour the acquisition of the
first or native language. For instance: some methods stress the imitation, repetition
and reproduction of native-like production. They are based on rote memory, analogy
and so on. Some methods should not be properly called methods because they lack
conceptual or theoretical framework. They are just collections of empirical lessons
done by the teacher. There is a lack of analysis of language.
2. EVOLUTION OF DIDACTICS
There have always been reasons for learning a second language, for example
cultural, economical, political, military and the like. We will have a brief look at how
didactics have evolved all through history.
The different ages of humanity have been characterised by having different
conceptions of the same universe, so each epoch proposed a different method in
consonance with the main linguistic and psychological theory.
In foreign language teaching, grammatical theories and methods appear and
disappear with a regularity that we could describe as monotonous. However, some
researchers recently have observe and pointed out the idea of the non-existence of a
perfect method. Researchers are concentrating on the study of learning processes,
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social influences, and individual factors (motivation, age, attitude, aptitude) I mean
all those factors that determine academic success. In fact many theoretical principles
of ancient methods are being reviewed and sometimes rescued for teaching practice
again.
2.1 ANTIQUITY AND THE MIDDLE AGES
We have reliable data showing that in Egypt, Babylon, Rome and Greece
foreign languages were also learnt. For instance, the Romans had Greek tutors and
slaves that taught them Greek. Then, when the Roman Empire spread all over
Europe, the Middle East and North of Africa, Latin expanded as well and was
considered the language of the Church, Politics, Education and so on. It remained so
until many centuries later when national languages appeared, and even then, Latin
was kept written in specific circles such as Law, Religion and Education.
2.2 THE RENAISSANCE
At that time the print introduced massively a lot of classical authors and texts
that acquired the category of perfect and pure regarding the use of the language.
They were taken as modern and stopped the development and study of national
languages. Latin grammar and methods were the main concern. What was just a
step ended as a target in itself. From that moment until not long ago grammar was
the dictatorship of most language teaching courses.
2.3. THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
Comenius, Locke and Montaigne favoured the consideration of oral language
as well. But, in fact, the trend was the translation of languages according to the
theories of Meidinger, and it was kept so until the last quarter of the 18th century. At
that time few modern languages were taught, and if so, they followed the classical
methodology.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF METHODOLOGICAL TRENDS
Before going on, it is convenient to
clarify what is understood by different
terms that on occasions are used
indiscriminately:
Approach or strategy:
Approach:Theories about the nature
of language learning that serve as
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the source of practices and principles in language teaching.refers to the
linguistic, psycho- and sociolinguistic
principles underlying methods and
techniques. Technique: is a single
procedure (...[it] comprises theclassroom techniques and practices
that are consequences of particular
approaches and designs.) for use in
the classroom.
Method: is between approaches
and techniques, as a mediator between
theory (the approach) and classroom
practice. Richards and Rogers consider it
to be composed of approach or principles, design and procedure, as an interrelatedsystem. Design refers here to objectives, linguistic content and its selection, the
types of learning tasks, the roles of teachers and the role of instructional materials.
Finally procedure includes techniques
and classroom management ...[it]
specifies the relationship of
theories of language and learning
to both the form and function of
instructional materials and
activities in instructional settings..
Before dealing with the
exposition of the main methods and
approaches, it is necessary to
comment that following Nunam (1990)
we have divided the main methods
into five groups:
1. Classical Tradition. In this group, we include those first methods:
Translation method, Direct method, and the Reform Movement.
2.Psychological Tradition. Here are included those methods that are based
on psychological theories of learning that, in a first step, were not conceived to
explain a foreign language learning/teaching.
3. Humanistic Tradition. They are those methods which put emphasis on
affective and emotional factors. Followers of these methods believe that if studentsare encouraged to adopt the right attitudes, interest and motivation, learning will be,
without any doubt, a success. Curran proposes: Community Language Learning,
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Cattegno: Silent Way and Lozanov: Suggestopedia.
4. Second Language Acquisition Tradition. Methods which draw directly on
research and theory into first and second language acquisition an attempt to apply
this theory and research to second language classroom.
5. Communicative Approach. It was developed starting from the work
developed by the Council of Europe: functional/notional method, communicative
method and task based approach.
3.1. CLASSICAL TRADITION
A. Grammar Translation Method.
It was first known in the United States as the Prussian Method. As the names of
some of its leading exponents suggest (Karl Pltz, Ollendorf and Meidinger)
Grammar Translation was the offspring of German scholarship. We inherited this
method from the teaching of Latin, a language that was not usefully taught for active use
in any language community. The grammar
translation method ignores authentic spoken
communication and the social variation of
language that goes with it, and concerns itselfprimarily with the written language of classical
literature.
It was attacked, because the grammar used
was inappropriate to English, and it was felt that
too much emphasis on grammar led to learning
about the language rather than learning to use
the language.
The grammar translation method had thefollowing characteristics:
a. Translation was a way of studying a language through detailed analysis of its
grammar rules, followed by the application of this knowledge to the task of translating
sentences and texts. Students had learned the language if they could translate well. It
used literary and very difficult texts.
b. Vocabulary was taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study and
memorization.
c. Reading and writing were the major focus; little or no systematic attention was
paid to speaking or listening, in fact, there was oblivion of pronunciation.
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d. There was no connection with the real world.
B. The Direct Method (Also called Reform Method / Natural Method /
Phonetical Method / Anti-grammatical Method)
Second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as
this is the natural way humans learn any language, and so mother tongue has no
place in a foreign language lesson. (Baby never relies on another language to learn
its first language).
Gouin had been one of the first of nineteenth-century reformers to attempt to build
a methodology around observation of child language learning. Other reformers likewise
turned their attention to naturalistic principles of language learning. These natural
language learning principles provided the foundation for what came to be known as theDirect Method. The Direct Method is perhaps the best known and also the most
controversial one. Here we have some of its most outstanding features:
a. This method emphasized aural/oral skills and rejected the use of the
students mother tongue at all. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in
the target language.
b. Grammar was taught inductively. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences
were taught. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, with objects
and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
c. Students do extensive listening and imitation.
d. Reading and writing were deferred for months in the fear that the sight of the
written symbols would confuse the learners in their use of the sounds. It begins with
ear training and pronunciation and also uses phonetic notation.
e. Prominence is given to the sentence instead of to the word.
f. Gradation and sequence of materials were not based on realistic spoken speech.
All the statements used were related to the classroom. Teachers did not generally think of
the students using language beyond the classroom. Any connection with real life was
expected to come later and was not the business of the school.
C. The Reform Movement.
Towards the end of the 19th century, linguists began to write about the need for
a new approach to language teaching. This became known as the Reform Method,
The Phonetic Method or Oral Method in language teaching.
From the 1880s linguistics like Wilhelm Vitor in Germany, Henry Sweet inEnglandorPaulRassyin France began to provide the intellectual leadership needed
to give reformist ideas greater credibility and acceptance. The discipline of linguistics
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was revitalized. Phonetics, -the scientific analysis and description of the sound
systems of languages - was established and linguists emphasised that the speech,
rather than the written word was the primary form of language.
Linguists shared many beliefs about the principles on which a new approach toteaching foreign languages should be based. In general the reformers believed that:
1. The spoken language is primary and it should be reflected in an oral based
methodology.
2. The findings of phonetics should be applied to teaching.
3. Learners should hear the language first before seeing it in written form.
4. Words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practised
in meaningful contexts and not as isolated, disconnected elements.
5. The rules of grammar should be taught only after the students have practisedthe grammar points in context. Grammar was inductive.
6. Translation should be avoided, though the mother tongue could be used in
order to explain new words or to check comprehension.
3.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL TRADITION
It refers to methods that take, as their point of departure psychological theories of
learning developed specifically to inform language learning and teaching. The methods
we will look at are: audio-lingualism,
and cognitive code learning
A. Audio-lingualism
In the US in the 1950s there
developed a movement based on the
precepts of structural linguistics and
behaviourist psychology and known
variously as the audio-lingual method
(ALM), audio-lingual teaching,
audiolingualism, the structuralist
approach, and structuralism. The British structural approach of Harold E. Palmer and
Michael WEST in the 1920s30s, which augmented the direct method with graded
grammatical structures, word lists, and readers. (2) The French mthode structuro-
globale (in English usually called the audio-visual method), which developed in the
1960s and used a combination of textbooks, tape recordings, filmstrips, slides, and
classroom presentation.They consisted of highly coherent and well-developed classroom pedagogy,
with clear links between theory and practice.
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It was developed as a reaction against more traditional methods. Audio-
lingualism, was based on the principles provided by behaviourist psychology
(Skinner) and structural linguistics (Bloomfield).
Skinner created a new concept with behaviourism called operant
conditioning, which placed more emphasis on the consequences of stimuli than on
the stimuli themselves. He accounted for learning in terms of reinforcement of these
stimulated consequences or responses. To the behaviourist, the human being is an
organism capable of a wide repertoire of behaviours. The occurrence of these
behaviours is dependent on three crucial elements in learning: a stimulus, which
serves to elicit behaviour; a response triggered by a stimulus; and reinforcement,
which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and
encourages the repetition of the response in the future.
Parallel to the development of behaviourism in psychology, there was a growing
influence ofstructural linguistics. On this side, Bloomfield and his associates had a
great deal to say about the psychological aspects of language learning. They noted
that while Indians could use their language, they could not describe it. From this they
concluded that the memorising of rules and grammatical paradigms were not useful
for learning second or foreign languages, and in consequence, teachers ought to
teach the language rather than teaching about it.
Classrooms environments were arranged in which there was a maximum
amount of repetition on the part of the learners. The presentation and practice stages
are the heart of audio-lingualism. As the presentations were to be done exclusively in
the target language, it was important that they were as clear and unambiguous as
possible.
Out of these various influences emerged a number of learning principles, which
became the psychological foundations of Audiolingualism:
1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit
formation. Good habits are formed by giving correct responses rather than by making
mistakes. The chance of producing mistakes is minimized by memorizing dialogues
and performing pattern drills. Language is verbal behavior that is, the automatic
production and comprehension of utterances.
2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the
target language are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form.
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3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis.
Analogy involves the processes of generalization and discrimination. Explanation of
rules is not given until students have practice a pattern in a variety of contexts and
are thought to have acquired a perception of the analogies involved. Drills can enable
students to form correct analogies. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammaris essentially inductive.
4. The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can
be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation. Teaching a
language thus involves teaching aspects of the cultural system of the people who
speak the language.
There are many similarities between Situational Language Teaching and
Audiolingualism: the order in which the language skills are introduced and the focuson accuracy through drill and practice in the basic structure. However, Situational L.
Teaching was a development of the earlier direct Method and does not have the
strong ties to the linguistics and behavioral psychology that characterize
Audiolingualism.
B. Cognitive-Code Learning. LearningTheory.
Chomskys Transformational
Grammar and Ausubels Cognitive
Psychology gave rise to their own method:
Cognitive-Code Learning. It was
developed by Carroll and it is also known
as the Cognitive Code Learning. It was
the first reaction against Behaviorism. It
considers learning as a mental process and
not as a habit formation.
It was a strong principle of audio-lingualism that grammar should be learned
unconsciously, andas we have seenthis view was defended by reference to
Skinners theory of learning. In 1959 Chomsky savagely attacked that view of the nature
of language learning, and in the years that followed he set out to produce a linguistic
theory, which would supersede the structuralist model of Bloomfield and his followers.
The resulting development of transformational-generative grammar (did not have a
direct impact on language teaching on any large scale, but an alternative learning
theory, cognitive-code, was developed that placed emphasis more on the consciousunderstanding of the rules which lead to the production of linguistic patterns than on
unconscious learning of the patterns themselves. Once again, as earlier with grammar-
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translation, rules would be learned and then applied to the elements of the language,
and the use of the intellect again became respectable.
3.3. THE HUMANISTIC TRADITION
Proponents of these methods believe that if learners can be encouraged to
adopt the right attitudes, and interests and motivation in the target language and
culture, as well as in the learning environment in which
they find themselves, then successful
learning will occur.
The best-known proponent of
humanism in language learning is E.Stevicwho has been an interpreter of
humanistic methods. 0thers include
Carrol, who developed the Learning
Theory, Curran, who developed
Community Language Learning,
Gattegno who created the Silent
Way and Lozanovwhoproducedthe approach known as Suggestopedia.
Stevick became interested in applying principles of humanistic psychology tolanguage learning and teaching after he became dissatisfied with both audio-lingual
habit theory and cognitive code learning. He came to the conclusion that success or
failure in language teaching depend the learners affective domain, that is to say,
emotional attitude towards the teacher, towards fellow learners, and towards the
target language and culture, which is the single most important variable in language
learning.
It is crucial, not only to take into account this factor, but to give it a central place
in the selection of content, materials and learning activities. In this view of language
development, the emphasis should be on learners not the teacher.
A. Community Language Learning. (Curran)
CLL is an approach in which students work together to develop what aspects of
a language they would like to learn. The teacher acts as a counsellor and a
paraphraser, while the learner acts as a collaborator, although sometimes this role
can be changed.
The primary aim of CLL is to create a genuinely warm and supportive
community among the learners and gradually to move them from complete
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dependence on the teacher to complete autonomy. The foreign language learner's
tasks, according to CLL are (1) to apprehend the sound system of the language (2)
assign fundamental meanings to individual lexical units and (3) construct a basic
grammar.
1) It takes its principles from the Counseling Learning Approach developedby Charles A. Curran.
2) It was created especially for Adult Learners who might fear to appearfoolish ; so the teacher becomes a Language Counselor , he understandsthem and leadsthem to overcome their fears .
3) It follows Krashens Monitor Theory ( Affective Filter Hypothesis ) andtheCognitive Theory where the human mind is active .
CLL advocates a holistic approach to language learning, since true human learning
is both cognitive and affective. This is termed whole-person learning. Such learning takes
place in a communicative situation where the teachers and learners are involved in an
interactionin which both experience a sense of their own wholeness. Within this, the
development of the learners relationship with the teacher is central. It begins with the
analysis of the learners feelings and psychological reactions in learning a foreign
language. The student co-operates with the other components of the group exchanging
information. The teacher is just a counsellor and must be nondirective and must be
prepared to accept and even encourage the adolescent aggression of the learner as
he/she strives for independence.
B. The Silent Way.
It was developed by Gattegno and it uses mimicry, visual aids and rods of
different colours and size to represent objects and concepts. The idea is to guide and
stimulate the learners autonomy.
Gattegno emphasises the need to develop in learners autonomy from the
teaching situation. He also claims that the method is learner-centred in that teaching
is subordinated to learning.
The learners are placed in a situation in which their attention is focused on a
limited amount of language. The teacher provides the minimum number of target
language models, and the learners from the very beginning are required to work
things out for themselves.
The classroom techniques are in many ways not so different from more
traditional methods, such as Situational Language Teaching and Audiolingualism,
focusing on the accurate repetition of sentences modelled initially by the teacher and
moving through a guided elicitation exercises to freer communication. The innovationin Gattegnos method derives primarily in the way in which classroom activities are
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organised, the indirect role of the teacher is require to assume in directing and
monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed upon learners to figure out
and test their hypotheses about how the language works, and the materials used to
elicit and practice language.
C. Suggestopedia.
Suggestopedia is a method developed by the Bulgarian psychiatrist Lozanov.
Suggestopedia is a specific set of learning recommendations derived from
Suggestology, which Lozanov describes as a scienceconcerned with the systematic
study of the non-rational and/or non-conscious influences that human beings are
constantly responding to. Suggestopedia tries to use these influences and redirect them
so as to optimise learning. The most outstanding characteristics of Suggestopedia arethe decoration, furniture, and arrangement of the classroom, the use of music, and the
authoritative behaviour of the teacher. To sum up, Lozanov created a new approach
where the teacher is the conductor and the student must adopt a relaxed attitude, that is
why on many occasions music is used. The teacher will create an atmosphere of mutual
confidence with the learner. There is a wide use of psychiatric techniques in order to
avoid inhibition on the part of the learner.
3.4 LANGUAGE ADQUISITION TRADITION
The most pervasive advocate of the acquisitionists tradition is Krashen. Along
with Terrell, he has developed a method based on these principles called the Natural
Approach.
Of the various principles set out by Krashen, the best known and most
controversial is the suggestion that there are two distinct mental processes operating
in L2 development. The first is the acquisition process, while the second is the
learning process. Acquisition is the natural way, paralleling first languagedevelopment in children. Acquisition refers to an unconscious process that involves
the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language
and through using language for meaningful communication. Learning, by contrast,
refers to a process in which conscious rules about a language are developed. It
results in explicit knowledge about the forms of a language and the ability to
verbalize this knowledge. Formal teaching is necessary for learning to occur, and
correction of errors helps with the developments of learned rules. Learning,
according to the theory, cannot lead to acquisition. Therefore, activities which
promote subconscious acquisition rather than conscious learning are central.
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Krashen thought that if second language acquisition operated in exactly the
same way as first language acquisition, then, all second language learners should
develop bilingual competence in the language. This does not occur due to what he
calls the affective filter, which affects positively or negatively the learning.
Therefore, the affective filter must be lowered.
In theNatural Approachthere is an emphasis on input or exposure, rather
than practice; a prolonged period of attention to what the language learners hear
before they try to produce language; and a willingness to use written or other
materials as a source of comprehensible input.
The main goal of the Natural approach is communication skills, but comprehension
always precedes production. Production must emerge spontaneously, that is, learners
must not be force to respond.
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
V. COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES
Its origins are many, insofar as one teaching methodology tends to influence thenext. The communicative approachcould be said to be the product ofeducators and linguists who had
grown dissatisfied with theaudiolingual and grammar-translationmethods of foreign languageinstruction.
Communicative language teachingmakes use of real-life situations thatnecessitate communication. Theteacher sets up a situation thatstudents are likely to encounter in reallife. Unlike the audiolingual method of
language teaching, which relies onrepetition and drills, the communicativeapproach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise,
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which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulationschange from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire tocommunicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.
A. Functional-Notional Approach.
A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language
learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-
functional syllabus, instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure
as had often been done with the ALM, but in terms of notions and functions.
In this model, a notion is a particular context in which people communicate,
and a function is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an
example, the notion or context shopping requires numerous language
functions including asking about prices or features of a product and bargaining.
Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions like introductionsand greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the notional-
functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the
ALM by helping students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a
variety of real-life contexts.
It is this sensitivity to individual needs, which is the major characteristic of the
functional-notional approach to language teaching. The ability to use real, appropriate
language to communicate and interact with others is the primary goal of the F.N.
approach. It arose primarily out of work commissioned by the Council of Europe,which became particularly interested, in the 1960s, in language teaching.
It was suggested, particularly, that language was much more appropriately
classified in terms of what people wanted to do with the language (functions) or in
terms of what meanings people wanted to convey (notions) than in terms of the
grammatical items as in traditional language teaching models.
During the 1970s, communicative views of language teaching began to be
incorporated into syllabus design. The central question for proponents of this new
view was, -What does the learner want/need to do with the target language? rather
than, What are the linguistic elements which the learner needs to master?
Syllabuses began to appear in which content was specified, not only in terms of the
grammatical elements which the learners were expected to master, but also in terms
of the functional skills they would need to master in order to communicate
successfully. This movement led in part to the development of English for Specific
Purposes (ESP).
Traditionally, linguistically-oriented approaches, along with many so-called
communicative approaches, shared one thing in common: they tended to focus on
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the things that learners should know or be able to do as a result of instruction. But in
communicative approaches content is stated in terms of the outcomes of instruction
as product-oriented.
As we have already seen, a distinction is traditionally drawn between syllabusdesign, which is concerned with outcomes, and methodology, which is concerned with
the process through which these outcomes are to be brought about. Recently,
however, some syllabus designers have suggested that syllabus content might be
specified in terms of learning tasks and activities. They justify this suggestion on the
grounds that communication is a process rather than a set of products.
B. Communicative
Method.
The communicative strategy
promotes a definite learning strategy which
could be defined as attempted
communication in the target language. The
learner, following this way of language
acquisition tries from the very beginning not
only to understand messages produced by
other speakers but also to produce his own
utterances in the L2 expressing his own
meanings and ideas He also has to be meaningfully exposed to the target language
because without a certain amount of meaningful input there cannot be any acquisition at
all, but this exposure need to be as prolonged as within the framework of the receptive
strategy.
Two characteristics of the Communicative Strategy:
1. The learner following this strategy produces utterances which are most often,
at least in the beginning period, highly inaccurate or grammatically ill formed from the
point of view of a L2 native speakers grammar.
2. The other is related to the fact that the learner pursuing the strategy in question
is almost constantly forced, especially in the beginning period to use communications
strategies: problem solving operations that the learner has to resort to whenever he is
faced with a communicative task exceeding his actual competence.
C. Task - Based Approach.
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They try to organise and present what is to be achieved through teaching and
learning in terms of how a learner may encourage his/her own communicative
competence in undertaking successfully a range of tasks, how learners may develop
this competence through learning, how to learn and how to communicate.
Task - based syllabuses then,
present procedures for
communicating, learning. They
must be designed taking into
account:
- The learners capacity
to develop their own initial
communicative competence.- They are process-
focussed
- Focus on the integration
of communicative knowledge and
use of abilities.
- Have the coherence
provided by the communicative
needs of learners and by the
learning / teaching process.
By task is meant the thousand and one things people do in everyday life, at
work, at play and in between.
This is a non-linguistic definition. Breen gives the following definition:A task is
any structural learning endeavour which has a particular objective, appropriate
context, and specified working procedure and a range of outcomes for those who
undertake thetask. Task is therefore assumed to refer to a range of workplans,
which have the overall purpose of facilitating language -from simple exercises
to complex activities.
This definition may be labelled as linguistic definition; it involves communicative
language use in which the users attention is focused on meaning and also on linguistic
structures. It is difficult to determine where a task ends and another begins. However,
tasks can be analysed and categorised according, to a great variety of criteria.
CONCLUSION
In this topic we have dealt with the most important language learning methods
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and especially the ultimate trends in 2LA. This overview is essential for any foreign
language teacher in order to have a sound foundation when approaching language
teaching and language learning. So far there seems to be no perfect neither best
approach to teaching languages. There are so many variables included (age, culture,
motivation, etc) that it appears almost impossible to have in the future the idealmethod. However, as long as humans need to speak other languages, apart from the
mother tongue, there will be foreign language learning methods.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brumfit & Johnson (1979) The communicative Approach to Language Teaching.
Oxford: OUP
Brumfit and Mary Finocchiaro (1983) The Functional-Notional Approach. OUP
Ellis, R. (1994) The Study of L2. Oxford: OUPHowatt, A. (1994) A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP
Krashen, s. (1981) 2nd L Acquisition and 2nd L Learning. London: Pergamon
Littlewood, W. (1981) Communicative Language Teaching. An Introduction. CUP
Stern, H.H. (1991) Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP
Stern, H.H. (1992) Issues and Options of Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP
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