Clase 2 Micro Su Producto

8/8/2019 Clase 2 Micro Su Producto

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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONALUNIVERSIDAD NACIONALDE INGENIERADE INGENIERA

Facultad de IngenieraFacultad de IngenieraIndustrial y de SistemasIndustrial y de Sistemas

.

Ing. Margarita D. Mondragn

[email protected]

Agosto Agosto-- Diciembre 2009Diciembre 2009

M I C R O E C O N O M I AM I C R O E C O N O M I A

Cl ase 2 Agosto 26 2009

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P rincipio de optimizacinFormacin de necesidades y su expresin como deseos.Formacin de preferencias por bienes y servicios.

Axiomas de preferenciasEl mercado, restriccin presupuestaria, P referencias,Utilidad, Uti lidad margina l, la e leccin ptima

Clase 2 Agosto 26,209

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Un ejemplo de discriminacin de preciosP osted: 21 Aug 2009 01:53 P M P DT

Ayer fue e l estreno de la pe lcu la Qu pas ayer? , se trata de una comedia quedescribe un conjunto de situaciones abiertas cuando sus protagonistas quierence lebrar una despedida de so ltero.P ens asistir y busqu en E l C omercio dnde la estaban pasando.La imagen que sigue es un co llage armado a partir de la pgina de cine.

He juntado la mayor parte de sa las de cine que pasan la pe lcu la para apreciar lasdiferencias de precios.E l precio ms a lto que encontr fue de 16.90, en e l C inemark de l Jockey, y e l msbarato e l C ine Star Metro UNI, de 5.50 nuevos so les.Otros precios: 12.90, 8.90 y 6 nuevos so les. C mo es que la misma pe lcu la se pasa en 5 sa las de cine a 5 precios

diferentes?Se trata de un obvio ejemp lo de discriminacin de precios.

Tohelp protectyour privacy, PowerPointprevented thisexternalpicturefrom being automatically downloaded. Todownload and display thispicture, click Optionsin theMessageBar, and then click Enableexternalcontent.

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Six Questions To Determine If Your New Idea Is A Rea l Business

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Do You Have A Compelling Value Proposition?It's forever worth repeating: Great ideas are on ly great business ideas if you canconvince peop le to pay for your product or service at a price above what it costsyou to de liver it. Just because you think your idea is great doesn't mean anyone

e lse does--or if they do, it doesn't mean they wou ld be wi lling to pay enough tocover your e lectric bi ll.6


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Is There A Viable Market For Your Product Or Service?It's not enough to find a few peop le who are wi lling to pay for your new product or service--you have to find more than enough of them to support a vibrantcommercia l enterprise. P rofessiona l investors ( like venture capita lists) areespecia lly interested in this question. They don't want to write checks to launchcompanies with limited growth potentia l, even if they' ll like ly be profitab le. On thef lip side, beware the lure of big numbers--just because there are 50 mi llion U.S.dog owners who spend some $ 4 3 bi llion on their pooches annua lly doesn't meanenough wou ld be interested in your new canine co logne. Fina lly, never count oncreating markets from scratch--there may we ll be a reason they don't exist. 7


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Can You Cover Your (Honest-To-Goodness) Development Costs?"Most companies that fai l do so because they are lacking capita l." We didn't sayit; venture capita l maven John De P uy, chief executive of Oaktree Ventures, did.

While investors won't wave b lank checks at you, they don't want you to fai l either. The key here is honesty: However much you think you need to bring your product to market, tack on a hea lthy cushion; add more for tech-heavy productsthat may (read: w ill ) need extra months of tweaking. C an't scare up enoughscratch to get out of the garage? The market may be te lling you something."You won't rea lly know whether you have a business opportunity unti l you try to

get funding, " says C har les Ho lloway, director of the C enter for Entrepreneuria l Studies at the Stanford Graduate Schoo l of Business.8


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Can You Reach Your Target Market In A Cost-Efficient Way?Even if you have an attractive product, enough capita l to bui ld a workingprototype and a potentia lly large customer base, you sti ll might go brokereaching those consumers. P ost cards, press re leases and grandopenings require cash, after a ll. A decade ago, a young America On linespent so much money f looding the wor ld with free tria l software that ittried to mask the out lays by capita lizing those expenses on its ba lancesheet. Even estab lished businesses have to keep spending to attractcustomers. In 2007, for instance, on line retai ler Amazon.com spent$3 44 million--2.3% of its $1 4 .8 bi llion in revenue--on marketing. Other businesses, such as socia l-networking sites Facebook and NewsC orp.'s MySpace, keep expenses down by re lying on vira l marketing--but that may not work when it comes to pedd ling dog co logne. (For more on smart marketing, check out "Six Marketing Strategies Worth

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Can You Sustain A Competitive Advantage?Great ideas attract competitors and substitutes. Having a rea l business means beingab le to survive the fight. Being the first to market may work to your advantage in the

short term, but sustaining that advantage cou ld require additiona l steps. The questionbeneath the question here is simp ly: What is your competitive advantage? If it'stechno logy, can you patent it? ( C heck the United States P atent and Trademark Officedatabase first.) If it's a commodity item, can you brand it? (Think K leenex.) Thisquestion a lso requires identifying potentia l weaknesses and finding ways to shorethem up--say, through outsourcing and partnerships. Great business ideas require

great execution; wasting resources just to be mediocre is small-business suicide. 10


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Are You Committed Enough?Just as you probab ly will underestimate the amount of startup capita l you' ll need, sotoo wi ll you misjudge the amount of effort launching a successfu l business wi ll take.

Fair warning: This is hard work. If you're not ready to give everything--and then some--it doesn't matter how great your great idea is.11


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Marketing StrategiesSix Marketing Tactics Worth Paying For Mary C rane, 05.17.07, 6:00 AM ET

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Survey The LandscapeToo few entrepreneurs bother to define the market--and its wi llingness to pay--for their product, says Leonard M. Lodish, professor or marketing at the WhartonSchoo l. Market surveys--on line, direct-mai l or by phone--can he lp, though they cancost up to $10,000. On line surveys are easiest. Zoomerang charges $599 for a year

subscription to its surveys service; Survey Monkey offers subscriptions starting ataround $20 per month. 13


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Scott Barbour/Getty ImagesGet Friendly With Google

After you've she lled out a few grand for a user-friend ly Web site, budget another fewfor getting noticed by the big search engines like Goog le and Yahoo!. You can buykeywords like Goog le's AdWords, which he lp direct customers to your site (see

"Marching Up The Search Stack ") or even hire a "search engine optimization " expert(see "Shou ld You Hire A Search Engine C onsu ltant? "). 14


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B uff Your Reputation With A B oard Of AdvisersSma ll businesses are short on a lot of things--inc luding credibi lity. One way to buff upyour profi le (and even raise some additiona l capita l) is to she ll out a few grand in

stipends for a reputab le board of advisers. According to C ompensation Resources,a lmost 91% of firms with $50 mi llion to $100 mi llion in revenue pay their advisers;average compensation: $ 4 ,800 per year. C onsu lting services may cost a bit more. (For more on this topic, check out "How To Set Up An Advisory Board .") Along the samelines, budget up to $3,000 a year for membership dues to industry organizations,chambers of commerce and other niche professiona l groups. The higher your profi le,

the more c lout you' ll have with supp liers, partners and customers. 15


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Call Customers To Action

Not all

e-mail

marketing campaigns are created equal. Those that give customers aca ll to action-- like Diaper.com's referra l program (see "Six Marketing Tactics Worth

P aying For ")--will get more peop le onto your Web site or into your store. E-mai l marketer C onstant C ontact charges $15 a month to b last e-mai ls to up to 500addresses; $30 wi ll get you up to 2,500. StreamSend charges $6 per month for 500 e-mai ls and up to $50 per month for 50,000 e-mai ls. Those prices inc lude testing

presentations in different e-mail

formats--such as Yahoo! mailand Goog

le mai

l--andtabu lating the response and bounce-back rates. 16


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P hotos.comCreate A CommunityWord of mouth is sti ll the most powerfu l form of marketing for sma ll businesses. Lurecustomers on line by launching a b log where they can network, share information and

hopefully ta

lk about how coo

lyour company is. B

logs are genera

lly inexpensive but youwill burn man-hours updating and monitoring the site. 17


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Test--And Test Some MoreNo one hits on the perfect marketing strategy on their first try. Instead of p lacing a ll your bets on one radio advertisement or te lemarketing campaign, try concurrent ly testing twoor three strategies on targeted groups of customers and in limited areas. "It's hard toconvince companies to do this because they want to do everything rapid ly, but then theyend up wasting a lot of money, " says Wharton's Lodish.

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Five Ways To Make Money Off Your Home land

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Bernhard Weber/Istock P hotoYour roots are important. Better yet, they just might fatten your wa llet. There are p lenty of customers looking for a little cu lture intheir lives--or just a taste of a home they left behind. Here are fiveideas to get you started.

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B ring It InP edd ling exotic products from your native country can fi ll your coffers. To get startedas an importer, you need a customs broker to navigate the transaction process--andthe barrage of fees. A typica l breakdown for U.S. importers, courtesy of JamesRedman-Gress, a customs broker from C har leston, S. C .: C ustoms fees can run upto 30% of the va lue of the merchandise, whi le customs bond fees co llected by thebroker, might be $3 for every $1000 worth of goods. If you import frequent ly, youcou ld pay a one-time annua l fee of perhaps $ 4 00. Then are the shipping fees: Astandard 4 0-foot ocean container from Egypt to South C aro lina runs in theneighborhood of $ 4 ,000. Any imported food products must be registered with theFood and Drug Administration, and a ll garments shou ld bear a Registered

Identification Number issued (for free) by the Federa l Trade C ommission. 21


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Ship It OutExporting may require a license--it depends on what you're shipping and whereit's going. U.S. exporters shou ld get an Export C ontro l Cl assification Number from the Department of C ommerce's Internationa l Trade Administration. You wi ll a lso need a 10-digit Schedu le B code to identify the product (for this, check outthe Schedu le B search engine at www.census.gov). Like importers, you wi ll paya f lurry of fees to get your products to customers. For a host of exporting

resources, organized by industry and location, visit Export.gov, part of theInternationa l Trade Administration.

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Say What?Trans lating written text or spoken word whi le preserving the right tone and nuance is ava luab le ski ll. From 200 4 to 201 4 , emp loyment for trans lators and interpreters in theU.S. is projected to increase 18% to 26%, compared to a 10% increase in the overa ll workforce, estimates the U.S. Department of Labor. One way into this business (thoughnot required) for U.S. residents: P ass a three-hour, open-book exam given by the

American Trans lators Association. According to a 2006 survey by the ATA, the reportedgross income for fu ll-time trans lators and interpreters ranged from $50,000 to $60,000. 23


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Show Them Around TownYour know ledge of loca l cu lture gives you an edge in the trave l sector. But don't justbook the trips--guide them. And find a niche: The more specific and scinti llating the

experience, the more you can charge for your services. Travel

entrepreneurs thatprovide unique tourist experiences can rake in 20% to 30% net margins.24


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Roll The DiceIf you can't make hay on your home land's products, try p laying its currency. If you live inFrance and think the U.S. do llar is due for a comeback against the euro, you cou ldexchange euros for do llars and wait for the greenback to recover. P rofessiona l tradersuse currency futures contracts to put down a fraction of the initia l investment, thus

juicing returns when things go right--but generating huge losses when they go wrong.Note: C urrency trading--whi le potentia lly lucrative--is on ly for those with stee l stomachsand capita l to lose. A safer bet is a currency Exchange-Traded Fund, an investmentvehic le that rises and fa lls based on the under lying va lue of different currencies.

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EntrepreneursThe 20 Most Important Questions In B usinessBrett Ne lson, 11.21.07, 6:30 P M ET

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C ompanies fai l for a host of reasons. Bad luck p lays a ro le, sure, butdisaster usua lly strikes because of a more fundamenta l f law--in theorigina l idea, the strategy, the execution or a ll of the above.

When it comes to bui lding a business, even Warren B uffett wou ld agreethat no one can spot every opportunity or anticipate every threat. Thereare simp ly too many variab les. And in an increasing ly competitive g loba l economy, those variab les are changing faster than ever before.

What entrepreneurs can do is ask the core set of tough questions thatgovern the fate of any enterprise. Armed with those answers, they standthe best chance of beating some fair ly dire odds: Studies estimate that

just two-thirds of a ll start-ups survive the first two years, and less than ha lf make it to the fourth.

Make no mistake: Digging for those answers is a grue ling exercise--onethat takes serious inte llectua l and emotiona l honesty.

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With any hope, the process begins long before money's been spent,products are bui lt and customers are lost rea l cha llenge, though, is tokeep digging as the business grows. New opportunities and threatsemerge, and yesterday's answers may not--and probab ly won't--suffice. Re lent less ly asking the tough questions is how behemothslike Wal-Mart, Microsoft and General Electric stay on top.

With that in mind, we present the 20 most important questionsentrepreneurs need to answer--and keep answering--to bui ld their businesses. Some high lights:

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Shutterstock1. What is your value proposition?This is the sing le most important question of the bunch. If you can't exp lain--in three,

jargon-free sentences or less--why customers need your product, you do not have a

value proposition. Without a need, there is no incentive for customers to pay. Andwithout sa les, you have no business. P eriod.

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2. Does your product address a viable market?Entrepreneurs are passionate to a fau lt. Many fa ll in love with an idea beforeconfirming that there's any viab le market for it, let a lone one large enough toattract investment capita l. If a market doesn't yet exist--the toxic term of art here is"white space

"--they assume they can create one. (Hint: There may be a reason for a ll that white space.)

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3 . What differentiates your product from competitors'?Few companies can re ly on-- let a lone afford--c lever marketing schemes toseparate themse lves from the competition. Yes, Starbucks made peop le be lievethey wanted $ 4 caffeinated concoctions, and Louis Vuitton lulled peop le intoshe lling out $1,500 for denim handbags, but those are the exceptions that provethe ru le. If you want to win in business, you need to offer something tangib ly

valuab

le that the competition doesn't. Examp

les: rock-bottom prices (Wa

l-Mart);ingenious product design (App le); extreme convenience (Fed Ex).

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6 . How much cash do you need to survive the early years?In case you didn't pay attention to the previous question, take this one to heart. It doesn'tmatter how much money your business might make down the road if you can't get out of your garage. P lenty of business p lans boast hockey-stick-sty le financia l projections butrun out of cash before the good times kick in. (Remember a ll those busted dot-comcompanies from the tech boom?) Three words: Mind the cash.

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7 . How will you finance the business?You have a few choices: Aunt Sa lly, credit cards (dangerous), ange l investors, and if you're rea lly onto something, venture capita l. Forget bank loans (at least unti l the cash isf lowing in a positive direction). As for se lling shares to the pub lic, what with a ll theregu latory hurd les, you might find the price of that exposure a tad steep. If you canbootstrap your business, do it; raising money is difficu lt and distracting. If you p lan onstumping for capita l, consider how much equity and contro l you're wi lling to give up. (Themore you need the money, the stiffer the terms wi ll get, so ask for it sooner than later.)Fina lly, a lways remember to match the timing of cash inf lows from your assets and theoutf lows to cover liabi lities. A mismatch can sting.

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8 . What are your strengths?Goog le writes powerfu l search a lgorithms; Steinway works wonders with wood; C iscosniffs out promising new techno logies and buys them. Figure out what you're good atand stick to it. An obvious notion, perhaps, but p lenty of zea lous entrepreneurs losetheir way--especia lly when the wor ld seems so fu ll of possibi lities.

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9 . What are your weaknesses?You may know how to design a widget, but not know a thing about running an efficientmanufacturing p lant. App le designs and markets its nifty i P ods and i P hones, but letssomeone e lse s lap them together. C ount less Webpreneurs farm out the design of their sites and back-office payment systems. Wasting resources just to be mediocre issuicide. Stick to core competencies and find trusted partners to hand le the rest.

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10. How much power do your suppliers have?C onvincing customers to buy your products is tough enough without supp liers giving youa hard time. Basic ru le of thumb: The fewer the number of supp liers, the more sway theyhave. Take the stee l industry, which re lies on a handfu l of companies for its ironfeedstock. If two of those big guys shou ld get together--as BH P Billton and Rio Tintohave been discussing--they wou ld have significant pricing power, potentia lly crimpingstee l producers' margins. On the f lipside, beware getting hooked on low-cost providerswho don't keep an eye on qua lity. ("Lead- laced " Barbie, anyone?)

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11. How much power do your buyers

have?Take a lesson from De lphi, the giant autoparts supp lier stuck in C hapter 11 despiteits $26 bi llion in annua l sa les: It's no fun tobe in a business where a few bigcustomers can demand price cuts with

each passing year.

Meanwhi le, movie theaters--even whi lebesieged by video-on-demand and other services--sti ll manage to push higher prices on the disaggregated masses.

The cost of a seat at a Rega l Entertainment Group theater in lower Manhattan is now $12--up 20% in lessthan three years.

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12. How should you sell your product?There is no one-size-fits-a ll so lution to wooing customers. For two decades, De ll C omputer bypassed retai lers and so ld direct ly to customers, with limited tech support.Genera l Motors and C oca C ola re ly on distributors to move their cars and cans. Cl othingcompanies like Ra lph Lauren work both interna l and externa l channe ls. And thanks todai ly, intensive sa les training, private ly he ld Lazy Days moves some $800 mi llion worthof RVs out of one spraw ling location near Tampa, F la. Whatever sa les method youchoose, make sure it a ligns with your overa ll business strategy.

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1 3 . How should you market your product?Young companies have to get the word out, but they a lso can go broke doing it. Adecade ago, America On line spent so much money f looding the p lanet with free tria l software that it tried to mask the b leeding by capita lizing those expenses on itsba lance sheet. (Regu lators later nixed that accounting treatment, wiping out mi llionsin accounting profits.) What percentage of sa les shou ld go toward marketing? As withsa les, there is no one ru le of thumb.

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1 4 . Does the business scale?Bill Gates p lowed pi les of money into deve loping the first copy of Microsoft Office. Thebeauty: Each additiona l copy of that software program costs next to nothing to produce.That's ca lled sca le--and it's the difference between modest wea lth and obscene riches.What mode ls don't sca le? Think service businesses, where the need for peop le growsa long with revenues.

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1 5 . What are your financial projections?You can't lead if you don't have a destination. Two critica l milestones: 1) the pointwhere more cash is coming into the business than going out in a given period, and 2)the point at which you fina lly recuperate your cumu lative initia l investment (inc ludingan adjustment for the time va lue of money). Financia l projections shou ld bereasonab le. P aint too rosy a picture and seasoned investors wi ll run; more to the point,you might run out of cash.

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1 6 . What price will consumers pay?Get this answer wrong and you cou ld leave bags of money on the tab le--or worse, send customers running into the arms of the competition. When App les liced the price of its i P hone by a third after on ly two months on the market, evenloya l customers screamed, forcing chief Steve Jobs to apo logize and offer apartia l rebate. C onsu ltants get paid handsome ly to he lp companies arrive at theright price. For more affordab le advice, check out "The Six-Step Guide ToPricing Your Product ." Wannabe consu ltants shou ld read "How To Price Your Consulting Services ."

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1 7 . How do you protect your intellectual property?Imagine s laving for years on a new ce llphone battery that lasts more than two days, on lyto watch it reverse-engineered and patented by someone e lse. Before you ask anyoneto crank out a few prototypes, fi le for a provisiona l patent. It protects your idea for a year while you work out the kinks. For more on inte llectua l-property protection, check outProtect Your Prototype and The Patented Path To Profits .

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C omstock1 8 . How do you keep the help happy?What's Goog le worth without its super-geeks? Go ldman Sachs without its number crunchers (and their go lden Ro lodexes)? The loca l bar without o ld Jim manning the tap?Not much, which is why attracting and retaining ta lent is critica l to so many businesses.For starters, that means crafting the right benefits package . Starbucks sets a fair lyhigh standard: Hea lth benefits are avai lab le to any Starbucks emp loyee who works atleast 20 hours a week and has been with the company for more than 90 days.

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1 9 . How committed are you to making this happen? About a year ago, C huck P rince, recent ly resigned chief executive of C itigroup,addressed a group at New York University's Stern Schoo l of Business. An audiencemember asked what life looked like at the he lm of such a co lossa l firm. P rinceresponded that, save for a few exceptions, every evening for the next five months wasa lready accounted for. Fair warning: If you want to run the show, get ready to giveeverything--and then some.

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20. What is your end game?Running a business with an eye toward f lipping it to a strategic buyer is a lot differentthan digging in for the long hau l. (Will YouTube ever turn a profit? Who knows, butthat's Goog le's prob lem now; the same goes for MySpace and News C orp.) Not surewhether you want to bui ld the next great empire or just make a decent buck? Askyourse lf the fo llowing eight questions .

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Why go big at all?Mapping out your long-term goa ls for the business is critica l before you decide to kickgrowth into high gear. Aiming to se ll out in a few years? Fine. Suffused with competitivedesire? OK. Just want to be left a lone to trick out your product, with little care for thebottom line? Stay sma ll.

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Are you inspired by creativity or more process-oriented?Many entrepreneurs start companies on raw creativity. They envision a new niche--abrand new wor ld even. But such imagination can get in the way when it comes time toinsta ll--and live within--the systems and processes necessary to accommodate growth.

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ShutterstockAre you willing to make tough decisions for thegrowth of the company?

Sure, your sister and co llege roommate he lped launchyour business, but they may grow less usefu l as thebusiness outgrows them.

If you're not comfortab le supp lanting (or firing) them,stay sma ll.

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C omstockDo you like speaking in public?C ompanies of any significant size need a pub lic face. Entrepreneurs who thrive onpub lic performances--week ly meetings, shareho lder gripe sessions, even te levisioninterviews--have an easier time than those who prefer to stay out of the spot light. (If pub lic speaking isn't your forte but you sti ll want to grow, find a confident substitute who

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Are you a consensus builder?In most cases, the bigger your business, the more input you need from those aroundyou. That means being wi lling and ab le to marsha l consensus. Entrepreneurs with a my-way-or-the-highway menta lity shou ld think about staying sma ll.

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P hotos.comIf you say you need it on your desk by 9 a.m., will it get done?

Anybody can hand out pink s lips, but leaders of growing companies have to go a stepfurther: They must command a certain degree of respect. As the stakes rise, you need afew dri ll sergeants on board. Not wi lling to sacrifice a little camaraderie to reach newheights? P ut a cap on your growth p lans. 55


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ShutterstockCan you delegate?The bigger your business, the less time you' ll have to interact with your emp loyees.Cl ear ly you can't know what's going on in every department a ll the time. If you can't

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