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o Automotive Electric Vehicles Copper-Nickel Brake Tube Radiators and Heat Exchangers
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Technical References HVAC/R Copper DX Geothermal Heat Pumps
o Fuel Gas Introduction Copper Fuel Gas News Specifying Copper Tube System Choice System Design Installation Publications Copper Advantages Training & Meetings System Sizing Design Figures Natural Gas Tables LP Gas Tables Inspection & Testing Contact Project Managers
o Industrial Copper Motor Rotor Casting Alloys Copper Alloy Molds Bronze Sleeve Bearings Selecting Bronze Bearing Materials Electronic Connector Design Guide Mold Design Guidelines
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o Seawater Copper Nickel
o Machined Products Free-Cutting Brass Copper and Brass Forgings Bronze Sleeve Bearings Advisory Notice
o Telecommunications Infrastructure Wiring for Homes Structured Wiring - CDROM's Communications Wiring for Today's Homes The Evolution of Telephone Cable Is Your Home Wired for the 21st Century?
o Antimicrobial Video, Audio and Podcasts
Resourceso Find Suppliers of Copper
Architectural Installation Contractors Database Copper & Copper Alloy Fabricator Database Building Products Database Service Centers Database
o Technical Reference Libraryo Publications List
Automotive Building Construction: Architecture Building Construction: Fire Sprinklers Building Construction: Home Builders' Marketing Materials
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Building Construction: Natural Gas Building Construction: Plumbing Electrical: Energy Efficiency Electrical: General Electrical: Power Quality Electrical: Telecommunications Industrial: Bronze Bearings Industrial: Cast Products Industrial: General Industrial: Machined Rod Products Industrial: Mold Alloys Properties / Standards Seawater Soldering / Brazing / Welding Special Publications Statistics / Directories
o Market Datao Standards
CDA UNS Standard Designation for Wrought and Cast Copper ASTM Standard Designation for Wrought and Cast Copper and Copper Alloys International Alloy Systems for Copper Comparison of National Standards Cross Specification Index European Numbering System for Non-Ferrous Metals Inactive Alloys
o Properties Properties of Wrought and Cast Copper Alloys
http://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/gas.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/gas.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/plumbing.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/plumbing.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/energy_efficiency.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/energy_efficiency.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/electrical_general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/electrical_general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/power_quality.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/power_quality.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/telecommunications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/telecommunications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/bronze_bearings.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/bronze_bearings.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/cast_products.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/cast_products.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/industrial_general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/industrial_general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/machined_rod_products.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/machined_rod_products.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/mold_alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/mold_alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/properties_standards.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/properties_standards.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/marine.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/marine.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/soldering.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/soldering.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/special_publications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/special_publications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/statistics_directories.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/statistics_directories.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/market_data/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/market_data/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/introduction.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/introduction.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/SDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?service=COPPERINTRA&Action=searchhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/SDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?service=COPPERINTRA&Action=searchhttp://www.copper-key.org/index.php?lang=englishhttp://www.copper-key.org/index.php?lang=englishhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/euro-standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/euro-standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/specifications/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/specifications/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard/euronumb.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard/euronumb.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/inactive-alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/inactive-alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?mode=basichttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?mode=basichttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?mode=basichttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/inactive-alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard/euronumb.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/specifications/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/euro-standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper-key.org/index.php?lang=englishhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/SDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?service=COPPERINTRA&Action=searchhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/introduction.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/market_data/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/statistics_directories.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/special_publications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/soldering.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/marine.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/properties_standards.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/mold_alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/machined_rod_products.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/industrial_general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/cast_products.htmlhttp://w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Properties of Copper Low Temperature Properties of Copper Cryogenic Properties of Copper Typical Uses of Copper Alloys Copper Compounds Microstructures of Copper Alloys Corrosion Protection & Resistance Fabrication Practices Powder Metallurgy Metallurgy of Copper-Base Alloys
o Questions? Consumers
o Copper in the Arts 2011 Issues 2010 Issues 2009 Issues 2008 Issues 2007 Issues Events
o Copper in Your Home Electrical & Communications Wiring Plumbing, Heating & Cooling Archtecture, Lighting & Decor Environment & Health Cookware & Decorations Do It Yourself Innovations & Technology
http://www.copper.org/resources/properties/atomic/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/atomic/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/144_8/144_8.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/144_8/144_8.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/cryogenic/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/cryogenic/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDACategoryUsesServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDACategoryUsesServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/applications/compounds/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/compounds/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/microstructure/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/microstructure/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/protection/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/protection/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAFabPracticesSelectionServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAFabPracticesSelectionServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/129_6/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/129_6/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/703_5/703_5.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/703_5/703_5.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/help/db/CopperInquiryServlet.jsp?Action=reset&isWeb=Y&webID=99&service=COPPERINTRA&redirect=http://www.copper.org&post2=CopperInquiryServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/help/db/CopperInquiryServlet.jsp?Action=reset&isWeb=Y&webID=99&service=COPPERINTRA&redirect=http://www.copper.org&post2=CopperInquiryServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/consumers/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2011/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2011/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2010/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2010/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2009/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2009/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2008/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2008/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2007/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2007/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/events/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/events/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Electrical/wiring_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Electrical/wiring_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/PHC/phc_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/PHC/phc_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Architecture/architecture_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Architecture/architecture_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Env_Health/environmentandhealth_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Env_Health/environmentandhealth_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Decor/cookware_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Decor/cookware_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/DIY/doityourself_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/DIY/doityourself_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Technology/innovations_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Technology/innovations_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Technology/innovations_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/DIY/doityourself_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Decor/cookware_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Env_Health/environmentandhealth_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Architecture/architecture_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/PHC/phc_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Electrical/wiring_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/events/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2007/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2008/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2009/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2010/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2011/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/help/db/CopperInquiryServlet.jsp?Action=reset&isWeb=Y&webID=99&service=COPPERINTRA&redirect=http://www.copper.org&post2=CopperInquiryServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/703_5/703_5.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/129_6/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAFabPracticesSelectionServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/reso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Home Planning Series FAQs - Frequently Asked Questions Copper Links Copper News
o Copper & Human Health CDA UK Article: Copper in Human Health
Educationo Copper Productiono Copper Facts
Communications Electrical Electronics Did You Know? Health Copper in the Home Copper in Household Products By the Way An Important Natural Resource Plumbing Roofing Copper in Transportation & Industry
o History of Copper 60 Centuries of Copper Copper in the USA
o The Statue of Liberty Concept Construction & Installation
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Facts & Figures Repair Concerns Repair Details Reclothed Lady
o Copper & Kids Fingerprint Disinfection Test Copper Experiment Seek a Word Connect the Dots Private Whys? Where Does Copper Come From? Copper Production: From Mine to Mill Product
Environmento Mining & Recycling
Copper - The World's Most Reusable Resource Recycling of Copper Trends In Copper Alloy Scrap In The U.S.
o Green Properties of Copper Why Consider Copper a Sustainable Material Copper in Buildings Copper in Energy Systems
o Copper in Drinking Water How The Copper Industry Helps Solve Corrosion Problems Lead-free Solders for Drinking Water Plumbing Systems SDWA and Copper Alloys SDWA and Copper Alloys: FAQs
o Copper in the Natural Environment
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The Biological Importance of Copper Copper Roof Stormwater Runoff Copper in Brake Pads Case Studies
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Seawater
Copper NickelMaterials Selection For High Reliability Copper Alloy Seawater System
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Adapted from original paper 'Materials Selection for High Reliability Seawater Systems'
Brian Todd, Consultant to Nickel Development Institute
Introduction Corrosion Considerations
Effect of Velocity Effect of Temperature
Materials Selection in Seawater Systems Piping
Low Initial Cost Systems High Reliability Systems - General Copper Alloy Systems
Valves General Valve Bodies Nonferrous Systems Valve Seats and Stems Nonferrous Systems Effect of Valve Design on Materials Selection Galvanic Considerations in Valves
Seawater Pumps Pump Casings Pump Impellers
Waterboxes Strainers
Interactions within the System Galvanic Effects Chemical Additions
Conclusion Appendix
Copper-tin, copper-aluminium and copper-zinc alloys
http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#inthttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#inthttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#corhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#corhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effvhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effvhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effthttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effthttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#mathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#mathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#piphttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#piphttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#lowhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#lowhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#highttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#highttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#cophttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#cophttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#genhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#genhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valbnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valbnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valbnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valbnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valsnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valsnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valsnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valsnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#seahttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#seahttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumihttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumihttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#wathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#wathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#strhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#strhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#interhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#interhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#chehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#chehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#conhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#conhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#appendhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#appendhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#copper-tinhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#copper-tinhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#copper-tinhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#appendhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#conhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#chehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#interhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#strhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#wathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumihttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#seahttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valsnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valbnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#genhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#cophttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#highttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#lowhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#piphttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#mathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effthttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effvhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#corhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#int7/29/2019 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Alloys of nickel and copper References
INTRODUCTION
Seawater systems are used by many industries such as shipping, offshore oil and gas production,
power plants and coastal industrial plants. The main use of seawater is for cooling purposes but it is
also used for fire-fighting, oil field water injection and for desalination plants.
The corrosion problems in these systems have been well studied over many years, but despite
published information(1)
on materials behavior in seawater, failures still occur.
Economic factors have to be considered in selecting materials for these systems and in this context,
essentially two types of system can be considered, as follows:
1.
A low initial cost system largely based on carbon steel and cast iron which will requireconsiderable maintenance over the life of the plant. Such a system is a reasonable choice in
areas where labor costs are low and material is readily available.
2. A system based mainly on alloy materials which, if correctly designed and fabricated, willrequire minimum maintenance and will function reliably. Rising labor costs in most
industries, together with the need for high reliability in capital intensive plant has produced
a trend to this type of system.
In practice many systems are a mixture of these two logical approaches resulting in the high initial
costs of one and the high maintenance costs of the other. For example, a plant which has
experienced costly replacement to galvanized steel piping may replace it with copper alloy piping
leaving valves fittings, etc., in carbon steel and cast iron. The resulting galvanic corrosion effects
result in reduced life for these parts. Thus, higher initial costs have resulted in reduced reliability and
high maintenance costs.
It is essential therefore in selecting materials for seawater systems to treat the system as a
whole. This should include the heat exchangers where these are part of the system. However, this
paper is confined to the seawater systems.
Another source of problems is the different requirements of plant builders and plant operators. The
former, often bidding under competitive economic pressures, has to meet the normal one-yearguarantee at minimum cost. Seawater, although corrosive, does not normally cause rapid
catastrophic failures. For example, carbon steel immersed in seawater corrodes at about 0.1 mm/yr;
whereas in, say, dilute acid, it corrodes at 100 times that rate. It is possible, therefore, to build a
seawater system largely from carbon steel and cast iron to meet the guarantee requirement.
The plant operator, however, may require a 20-year trouble-free life but is often unwilling to specify
the required material and accept the higher initial costs. It is not unusual to find a process plan
successfully handling corrosive acids but shut-down because of problems in its seawater system
which has not been given the same care in materials selection as the process equipment.
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Materials selection for the two basic systems specified above are given in the following sections. It
should be noted, however, that various studies of materials in seawater systems have concluded,(2-
5)that systems based on alloy materials are more economic on a life cycle cost basis.
Back to Top
CORROSION CONSIDERATIONS
The corrosion behavior of materials commonly used in seawater systems has been reviewed by the
author in(6)
. Data from this review will be used in this paper and only two factors influencing
corrosion behavior, namely velocity and temperature, will be considered here.
Effect of Velocity
Velocity is the most important single factor influencing design and corrosion in seawater systems.
Velocity of seawater through the system influences pressure losses and thus pumping costs.
The design velocity chosen controls the dimensions of many components, for example, piping and
valves. As the costs of these components increase rapidly with pipe diameter, then pumping costs
and component costs have to be optimized. However, velocity also influences the corrosion behavior
of the materials, and the design value chosen is often controlled by corrosion considerations.
Corrosion of carbon steel in seawater is controlled by the availability of oxygen to the metal surface.
Thus, under static conditions, carbon steel corrodes at between 0.1 and 0.2 mm/yr, reflecting the
oxygen level and temperature variations in different locations. Pitting also occurs.
As velocity causes a mass flow of oxygen to the surface, corrosion is very dependent on flow rate
and can increase by a factor of 100 in moving from static (zero velocity) to high velocity (40 m/s)conditions.
Galvanizing confers only limited benefit under flow conditions, as corrosion of zinc also increases
with velocity. For the thicknesses normally used in seawater piping, it will extend the life of the pipe
for about six months.
The copper base alloys are velocity limited as impingement attack occurs when the hydrodynamic
effect caused by seawater flow(6)
across the surface of such alloys exceeds the value at which
protective films are removed and erosion-corrosion occurs. Thus, these alloys, if they are to exhibit
high corrosion resistance must be used at design velocities below this limiting value.
Stainless steels are not subject to impingement attack, but are prone to pitting and crevice corrosion
under low velocity conditions and this must be taken into consideration when these alloys are used
in seawater.
Nickel base alloys such as InconelTM
Alloy 625, HastelloysTM
C-276 and C-22 and titanium are not
subject to pitting or crevice corrosion in low velocity seawater, nor do they suffer impingement
attack at high velocity. However, price limits their use to special applications in seawater systems.
Table 1 provides data on some of the materials commonly used in seawater systems. Details of of
copper alloy compositions are given in theAppendix.
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Alloy
Quiet seawater
0-0.6m/s
8.2 m/s
corrosionrate mm/year
35-42 m/s
corrosion ratemm/year
Average
corrosion ratein mm/year
Maximum
pittingmm
Carbon steel 0.075* 2.0 - 4.5
Grey cast iron 0.55
(graphitised)
4.9 4.4 13.2
Admiralty Gunmetal 0.027+
0.25 0.9 1.07
85/5/5/5 Cu Sn Pb Zn 0.017+
0.32 1.8 1.32
Ni Resist Cast Iron Type
1B
0.02++
Nil 0.2 0.97
Ni Al Bronze
(BS 1400 AB2-C)
0.055+++
1.12 0.22 0.97
70/30 Cu Ni + Iron
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Alloy
Quiet seawater
0-0.6m/s
8.2 m/s
corrosionrate mm/year
35-42 m/s
corrosion ratemm/year
Average
corrosion ratein mm/year
Maximum
pittingmm
Please Note: All of the above data (except velocity data for 6% Mo stainless) are taken from actual
test results and are thus not exactly reproducible. This is particularly true of the maximum depth of
pitting which may vary widely from test to test.
Because of the importance of velocity, it is usual in many systems to base design of pipe diameters
on this factor and allowable design velocities are assigned to commonly used pipe materials.(7)
In considering velocity, it is important to note that local velocities may vary considerably from designvelocity. This is particularly important where features of the system such as small radius bends,
orifices, partly throttled valves, misaligned flanges, etc., which can generate turbulence, give rise to
local high velocities which may accelerate corrosion. It follows that design and fabrication of the
system should aim at minimizing turbulence raisers.Back to Top
Effect of Temperature
Few data are available on the effect of temperature within the range normally encountered in
seawater systems. It has been noted at LaQue Center of Corrosion Technology that corrosion of
carbon steel increases by approximately 50% between the winter (average temperature 7C) and
summer (27-29C). Although oxygen solubility tends to fall with rise in temperature, the higher
temperature tends to increase reaction rate. Evidence from work(8)
on steel in potable waters
suggests that the temperature effect is more important and corrosion, for steel, will increase with
temperature.
For copper alloys, increase in temperature accelerates film formation; this takes about 1 day at 15C,
whereas, it may take a week or more at 2C. It is important to continue initial circulation of clean
seawater long enough for initial film formation for all copper alloys. More time is needed for winter
than for summer start-ups.
For stainless steels and other alloys prone to pitting and crevice corrosion, increase of temperature
tends to facilitate initiation of these types of attack. However, data on propagation rate(9)
suggest
that this declines with rise in temperature. The net effect of these conflicting tendencies is not
always predictable. Temperature also influences biological activity which may, in turn, influence
corrosion.
Back to Top
MATERIALS SELECTION IN SEAWATER SYSTEMS
Piping
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For low initial cost systems, materials such as mild steel, cast iron and steel with cement or organic
coatings are used for piping. Data on steels show that the corrosion rate in flowing seawater
increases from about 0.1 mm/yr under static conditions to almost 1 mm/yr at 3 m/s. As velocities in
local areas of turbulence can easily exceed 3 m/s, even when the design velocity is much lower,
corrosion tends to be accelerated in such areas. Also, as pipe thickness tends to increase with
diameter, experience in systems with steel pipes show that failures commence first in the smaller
diameters and, as the service life increases, failures occur on larger diameters so that repair costs
accelerate with time. Cast iron behaves in a similar way to carbon steel. Small diameter steel or cast
iron pipes are also easily clogged by corrosion products if not in continuous service.
Cement lined pipes are sometimes used. The main considerations here are:
1. Need for care in handling and fitting. If pieces of the lining break off, the area of bare steelexposed is anodic to the steel embedded in the cement. Potential differences up to 400 mv
have been measured(10)
between embedded and exposed steel. The corrosion rate in such a
cell will be determined by the flow of oxygen through the cement and, as the area
relationship of embedded to exposed steel is high, the corrosion rate can be high.
2. Joints at valves and fittings. Similar considerations apply as in item 1,above). All joints mustbe covered with a cement lining if corrosion is to be avoided.
3. Spalling off of linings. If corrosion occurs, then the corrosion product produced will tend tocause the lining to spall off and pieces of lining can partially block heat exchanger tubing
causing local impingement attack. Physical damage can also cause the lining to spall with
similar results.
Cement linings are most effective in long, straight runs of large (over 1 m) diameter. The ability to
maintain lining integrity decreases rapidly with diameter, number of fittings and valves.
Other types of linings have been considered and sometimes used for seawater piping. A study by
BSRA(11)
on a wide range of pipe linings showed that only two, namely chlorprene and soft natural
rubber withstood laboratory tests simulating shipboard conditions. In terms of piping costs they
offered economic advantage over non-ferrous piping only in sizes above about 150 mm diameter.
This study did not compare installed costs and Lim(12)
found that installed cost of lined pipe on an
offshore platform showed only a marginal cost advantage over 90-10 Cu-Ni piping. The advantage in
materials cost being offset by the extra care needed for installation.
High Reliability Systems - General
In marine engineering upgrading from steel has traditionally meant a change to copper-base alloys.
High reliability systems based on copper-base alloys will now be considered.
Copper-Alloy Systems
Two copper-base alloys have been widely used for seawater handling, namely aluminum brass and
90-10 Cu-Ni although in recent years, particularly for large diameter piping there has been a strong
trend towards 90-10 Cu-Ni. When using non-ferrous piping the system must be designed on the
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basis of water velocity in order to avoid impingement attack, even when some turbulence (which
will give rise to high local velocities) may occur.
FIGURE 1. Relationship between water velocity and
probability of impingement attack in seawater for copper, aluminium-brass, 90-10 Cu-Ni, and 70-30
Cu-Ni
Figure 1,(13)
indicates how the probability of failure of impingement attack increases with designvelocity. For a system with high reliability acceptable design velocities are as follows:
Copper 0.75 m/s
Aluminum brass 2.5 m/s
90-10 Cu-Ni 3.0 m/s
70-30 Cu-Ni 3.5 m/s
The use of 70-30 Cu-Ni is confined to submarines where its high strength is advantageous. Due to
the low design velocity and hence large pipe sizes, copper is uneconomical except for small diameter
piping for essentially domestic applications, so that the real choice is between 90-10 Cu-Ni and
aluminum brass. Both materials are technically suitable, provided the system is designed to the
water velocities given above and both have been successfully used in many seawater systems.
However, the current trend is towards the use of 90-10 Cu-Ni, the reasons for this being:
1. Its better weldability. Although aluminum brass can be welded using aluminum bronze fillermaterials, this is a relatively difficult procedure. Silver brazing is also used but this is
expensive; firstly, because a high silver content (50% min) alloy is needed to provide the
required corrosion resistance; and secondly, because the technique is difficult and time
consuming for diameters above about 50 mm.
2. Its high stress corrosion resistance. 90-10 Cu-Ni does not normally require any stress reliefheat treatment after fabrication. Aluminum brass requires stress relief to avoid the
possibility of stress corrosion cracking to which it is susceptible in seawater.
3. Its good experience. Gilbert(14)reports only nine cases of premature failure over a period of20 years. This is a remarkable result considering the large tonnage of the alloy in use
throughout the world. Only three of the failures involved excessive turbulence, suggestingcurrent design velocities may be conservative.
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It is also relevant to note that most of the world's navies have standardized on 90-10 Cu-Ni for piping
in surface vessels, thus ensuring worldwide availability of facilities for fabrication of the alloy.
Some use has been made of aluminum bronzes for piping in components such as pump columns.
Nickel aluminum bronze is preferred for seawater, and usually in case form (BS 1400 AB2 or UNS
C95800). Care is needed with components fabricated from plate as the heat affected zones are
sensitive to selective phase corrosion (dealuminification) which can lead to cracking. Risk of this can
be reduced (but not eliminated) by heat treatment (at 650-675C for six hours) after welding.
The design water velocities given above have been proved in service over many years and, as
experience has been good, there has been a tendency to raise them to achieve economies in pipe
costs. British Standard BSMA 18 allows up to 3.0 m/s for aluminum brass and 3.5 m/s for 90-10 Cu-Ni
pipe for bores above 100 mm. Below this size the velocity is reduced progressively. Although it is
logical from a consideration of water flow through pipes, to expect a reduction in risk of
impingement attack with increase in diameter and hence to allow higher water speeds in larger
diameter pipes, there are few data on which to base design. One approach to this problem is to use
the results obtained by Efird(15)
which relate the onset of impingement attack to a critical shear
stress (resulting from the flow velocity) and pipe diameter. If the value of critical shear stress of 43.1
N/m2
(0.9 lb/ft2) for 90-10 Cu-Ni is accepted, then it is possible to relate critical shear stress to pipe
diameter at a given seawater temperature.
Table 2 provides some data for seawater at 5C (Higher temperatures would give higher critical
velocities.)
TABLE 2.Effect of pipe diameter on critical velocity in seawater at 5C for 90-10 Cu-Ni
Minimum pipe diameter
mm*
Calculated critical velocity
for impingement
m/s
72.15 4.70
103.00 4.85
154.25 5.08
212.30 5.25
315.00 5.42
447.20 5.52
* From Table 2 in British Standard BSMA 18
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The values in Table 2 are based on parallel flow tests over plane specimens and, as would be
expected, are higher than design water velocities which must allow for local turbulence effects.
Thus, these absolute values should not be used as design values but could provide a guide to the
designer to vary design water velocity with diameter to economise in system costs.Back to Top
Many corrosion problems in seawater systems occur in valves. Often such problems are due to the
use of steel or cast iron valves with non-ferrous piping. Although the life of such valves in a steel or
cast iron pipe system is short (i.e., two to three years) when fitted in a alloy system, it may be less
than a year due to the galvanic effects from the piping.
The three main components of a valve are the body, valve seats and the shafts or stems; these will
be considered separately. It should be noted, however, in a system with a nominal seawater velocity
of a few meters-per-second flow through the valve, that the valve, depending on its design, may give
rise to turbulence and much higher local velocities, particularly when the valves are used for
throttling.Back to Top
Valve Bodies Non-Ferrous Systems
The basic low cost valve used in ferrous pipe systems has a cast iron body with 60-40 brass internals.
Depending on design, corrosion rates of several millimeters per year can occur on the body. The
body cathodically protects the internals (until a layer of graphitic corrosion product forms) and the
valve will function for two to three years.
Coatings on valve bodies are often used but their success depends mainly on the valve design (see
later). In all cases, the life of the coating depends on its integrity, as manufactured, after installation
and in service. Any break in a coating can result in intense corrosion and perforation or the valve
body.
Upgrading of valve body materials to give higher reliability requires the use of alloys with good
corrosion resistance. Such materials are copper base alloys such as nickel aluminum bronzes,
Admiralty and leaded gunmetals and cast Cu-Nis. All these alloys are characterized by good
resistance to static seawater (necessary for shut-down conditions) and to flowing seawater. Table
3 gives some data under static and flowing conditions.
TABLE 3. Effect of velocity of some cast copper base alloys
Alloy
Quiet seawater
0.06 m/sec
Moderate
velocity
8.25
m/sec
High velocity tests
35-42 m/sec
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General
corrosion
mm/year
Maximum
pitting
mm
Corrosion
mm