Monografía Modelo APA-1

7/25/2019 Monografa Modelo APA-1

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Andrews University

Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary

A LEADERSHIP THEORY APPROACH

FOR MINISTRY

A Paper

Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Course

!A"#$% &ssues in eadership Theory

'y

Ricardo (orton

(ovem'er )%* )++,


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TA! .F C.(T!(TS

Chapter

&(TR."UCT&.( ////////0/////////////00 1

1. T2! 3!A(&(4 .F !A"!RS2&P A(" T2!.R5 /////000// #

Components of eadership ///////////////// #

3y "efinition of eadership //////////////000 ,

The 3eaning of Theory ////00////////0///// %

eadership Theories //////0////0///////0 6

2. TRA(SF.R3AT&.(A !A"!RS2&P ////////////0071

Pioneers ehind the Theories ////////////////0 71

Transformational Theory ////////////////00 78Transformational eadership Theory ///////////000 7#

Characteristics of Transformational eaders //////////0 7,

Characteristics from urns /////00///////00/0/0 7%

Characteristics from ass ////////////////0 7%Characteristics from .ther Authors ///////////00 76

3apping the Theory /////00/////00/////00///0 76

Transformational Theory and Culture ////0/////00///0 )7.rgani9ational Culture /////////////////00 )7

.rgani9ational Culture and Transformational Theory /////0 ))

Personal Reflection //////////////////// ))

3. C2AR&S3AT&C !A"!RS2&P //////////////// )$

(ature and Pioneers of the Theory ///00/////////0/0 )$The 3eaning and (ature of Charisma ///////////0 )1

Pioneers and Analysts of the Theory //////////// )1

3apping the Theory ///////////////////00 )#The "ar: Side of Charisma ///////////////// ),

Charisma and Pretension ///////////////// ),

Charisma and Power //////////////////0 )%Positive and (egative Charisma ////////////// )%

Personal Reflection ////////////////////0 )6

)


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4. S!R;A(T !A"!RS2&P //////////////////00 $7

Pioneers ehind the Theory ///////////////// $7

3eaning and Attri'utes of Servant eadership ///////0//0 $)

Servant eadership and Christianity /////////////00 $1The 3eaning of Servant eadership //////////// $8

3apping the Servant eadership Concept ///////////0 $,

Personal Reflection /////////////////00//00 $%

5. 35 APPR.AC2 T. !A"!RS2&P A(" C.(CUS&.( /00000/// 1+

Transformational* Charisma* and Servant eadership /////// 1+3y "efinition and Approach to eadership /////////// 1)

R!F!R!(C! &ST ////////////////00///// 11

$


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&(TR."UCT&.(

This paper analy9es* synthesi9es* and evaluates :ey concepts and theories related

to leadership theory and practice0 The monograph uses insights learned during the course

!A"#$% &ssues in eadership Theory and adds additional views on leadership theory

o'tained during the investigation for this assignment0 The overall purpose of the paper is

to integrate the leadership theory concepts learned during the course into an approach to

leadership that is conte and the meaning of

=theory0> oth terms have 'een historically defined in ways that in time and conte


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theories into my field of wor:0 The paper ends with a synthesis of how my approach to

leadership would 'e 'ased on the analysis of these three theories0

8


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C2APT!R 7

T2! 3!A(&(4 .F !A"!RS2&P A(" T2!.R5

"efining leadership has 'een a daunting tas:0 The literature on the su'@ect

pro@ects as many definitions as people who have attempted to define the term0 hat

ma:es the term difficult to define is the fact that a good definition of leadership needs to

reflect the mission and goals of the organi9ation and many an organi9ation e he?she should offer the =other chee:0>

The vast variety of organi9ational missions and goals* and the su'@ective nature of

leadership styles* is the main reason why so many definitions of leadership e


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leadershipD =Ba leadership is a process* B' leadership involves influence* Bc leadership

occurs in a group conte ased on these

components* this author defines leadership as =a process where'y an individual

influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal> Bp0 $0

M% Def$n$t$on of Le!e"s#$p

The 'i'lical doctrine of Spiritual 4ifts infers the idea that leaders are 'orn and

made0 This notion is clearly presented 'y the apostle Paul with the wordsD =!agerly desire

the greater gifts> B7Cor 7)D$70 &n the conte


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when lay mem'ers ta:e upon their shoulders* 'y choice the responsi'ility of organi9ing a

small study group or even planting a new church in uncharted territory0

T#e Men$n& of 'T#eo"%(

!tymologically spea:ing* the word theory comes from two 4ree: words* thea=a

view> and horam=to see0> The 4ree: word theoriameans =contemplation* speculation*

and things loo:ed at> BhttpD??www0etymonline0com?inde

httpD??dictionary0reference0com?searchqGtheory0

=An e


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ased on the uncertain nature of the theories* and the lac: of consensus a'out its

meaning* one may @ustifia'ly conclude that theories are not proven facts B!0g0* the theory

of evolution0

Le!e"s#$p T#eo"$es

The study of leadership theories should 'egin with a universally accepted

definition of leadership and with a unified criteria of the nature of =theory*> which we do

not have0 2owever* there are leadership theorists who have theori9ed a'out the

intricacies of leadership0 This section of the paper 'riefly discusses the main leadership

theories0 Three of those theories* transformational* charismatic* and servant leader* will

'e discussed more deeply throughout the paper and applied to my line of wor:0

According to the . BhttpD??www0oup0com?

u:?orc?'in?6,%+766)8$6,8?+7student?glossary?glossary0htm0 Some theories also

underscore the importance of the situational circumstance of the leadership scenario0 The

following paragraphs present a 'rief description of the main leadership theories discussed

in the leadership literature today0

The Great Man theories0 These theories assume that the capacity for

leadership is inherent and 'ased on the Aristotelian philosophy that leaders are 'orn* not

made0 4ender inclusiveness was originally omitted from the theory 'ecause* at the time*

leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality B;an agner* )++,0 The

masculinity of leadership has 'een challenged 'y some who 'elieve Florence

(ightingale* who had followers* could 'e considered =a K4reat omanE of the ;ictorian

6
http://www.oup.com/%0Buk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/glossary/glossary.htmhttp://www.oup.com/%0Buk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/glossary/glossary.htmhttp://www.oup.com/%0Buk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/glossary/glossary.htmhttp://www.oup.com/%0Buk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/glossary/glossary.htm


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era> B3oiden* )++)L iderquist* )+++L 3urphy* )++80 Along with (ightingale* history

registers countless accounts of great female leaders* some of which led entire :ingdoms0

Traits theories0 Similar to the great man theory* trait theories assume that leaders

posses inherent qualities and traits that ma:e them 'etter suited to leadership0 The 4reat

3an?trait theories dominated the theoretical leadership forum until the 768+s0 These

theories have 'een e


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social exchange theoryinvolves a'stract items and followers play an active role in

determining and retaining the leader0

Contingency theories0 Contingency theories not only ta:e into account the

leader?follower relationship* 'ut also reali9e that situational varia'les affect leadership

performance0 The theories focus on particular varia'les related to the environment that

might determine which particular style of leadership is 'est suited for the situation0

According to these theories* no leadership style is 'est in all situations0 Success depends

upon a num'er of varia'les* including the leadership style* qualities of the followers* and

aspects of the situation0

Popular among contingency theories is the PC contingency model 'y Fred

Fielder that emphasi9es the relationship 'etween leader characteristics and the situation0

The model descri'es how the situation moderates the relationship 'etween leadership

effectiveness and a trait measure called the least preferred co-wor:er BPC score0 The

score is determined 'y as:ing a leader to rate* on a set of 'ipolar ad@ectives* the one

person with whom he?she wor:ed least well with B5u:l* pp0 )78-)7%0 2ersey and

lanchardEs situational leadership model is pro'a'ly the most popular of the contingency

theories0 &t prescri'es a different pattern of leadership 'ehavior depending on the

=maturity> of an individual follower0 The following matri< illustrates the leadership style

77


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in terms of the amount of support and direction that leaders give to their followers

BRetrieved on (ovem'er 7#* )++,* fromD httpD??www07)manage0com?methodsM

'lanchardMsituationalMleadership0html0

The multiple linkage model0 This model 'uilds upon earlier models of leadership

and group effectiveness0 4ary 5u:l* the man 'ehind the model* proposes that the overall

impact of specific leader 'ehaviors on group performance is comple< and is composed of

four sets of varia'lesD Ba managerial 'ehaviors* B' intervening varia'les* Bc criterion

varia'le* and Bd situational varia'les B5ul:* p0 ))%0 The developer of the theory

7)


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recogni9es some conceptual wea:nesses of the model* such as failure to specify =how

different types of leader 'ehavior interact with each other in their effects on intervening

varia'les> B5u:l* p0 )$80

Transformational charismatic and servant leadership0 These leadership theories

should 'e included among the contingency theories and will 'e studied in more detail for

the emphasis they place on morality and follower development0

7$


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C2APT!R )

TRA(SF.R3AT&.(A !A"!RS2&P

This chapter aims to provide an overview of the transformational theory and apply

its principles to leadership for religious organi9ations0 Spinelli B)++# indicates that

transforming leadership =results in mutual stimulation and elevation that converts

followers into leaders* and it may also convert leaders into agents0> .f all theories

reviewed for the !A"#$% course* this leadership style ran:s among the 'est suited for

church leadership0 This theory emphasi9es positive results* innovative thin:ing* and are

=tolerance to followersE mista:es> BSmith* 3ontagno* H Nu9men:o* )++1* a desira'le

quality among leaders wor:ing with volunteers0

The chapter is divided into four sections that include the study of the pioneers

'ehind the theory* the characteristics of transformational leaders* a section attempting to

map the main tenets of the theory is added* concluding with my personal reflection on the

theory as it applies to my line of wor:0

P$onee"s )e#$n! t#e T#eo"$es

Transformational theories* in general* find application in several disciplines and

systems0 Transformational theories e


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transformational theories related to leadership and introduces the wor:s of the foremost

pioneers of 'oth the transformational theory and transformational leadership theory0

T"nsfo"mt$on* T#eo"%

The contemporary study of transformational theories for different disciplines

often crosses with the pioneering wor: of 4eorge and B76,$0 &n his 'oo:* Gro! or

die" The unifying principle of transformation* and descri'es the structure of change in

natural systems with a series of interloc:ing S-curves with three distinct phases of growth

to face changing environments0 Theories 'ased on the S-curve* :nown also as the

Sigmoid curve* are founded on the assumption that all systems have a 'eginning* a period

of growth* a plateau* a period of decline* and death B3alphurs* )+++* p0 #$0 andEs 'oo:

title reflects this assumption and provides a solution to continuous growth 'y periodic

transformation0

Phase one of andEs transformational theory is characteri9ed 'y e


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&nnovation0 The main implication of the theory is that leaders must 'e aware of which

phases the system is under and which set of rules are currently operative0

Another transformational theory studying change in important fields is quantum

mechanics0 A common te &n his 'oo:*&ebel 'eadership" Commitment and Charisma in a

&evolutionary (rocesshe see:s to diminish the central place of charisma in leadership* a

predominant theory at the time* arguing that follower commitment in revolutionary

movements involves more than the =leaderEs personality> Bp0 70 Transformational

leaders inspire people to action not 'ecause of their =god-li:e virtues> 'ut rather 'ecause

they incarnate the =collective soul*> =communal identity*> and =social philosophy> of the

group Bp0 ,60 "ownton differentiates transformational leadership from transactional

7#


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leadership* underlining the fact that in the latter ='oth leader and follower are viewed as

'argaining agents trying to ma in a calculative manner* e Bp0 $0

2e sets out to demonstrate in his Pulit9er pri9e pu'lication that =the effectiveness of

leaders must 'e @udged not 'y their press clippings 'ut 'y actual social change measured

'y intent and 'y the satisfaction of human needs and e Bp0 $0 According to

urns* transformational leadership ta:es place when =leaders and followers raise one

another to higher levels of motivation and morality0> 2e adds that this :ind of leadership

is ultimately =moralin that it raises the level of human conduct and ethical aspiration of

'oth leader and led* and thus has a transforming effect on 'oth> Bp0 )+0

ass H Avolio B7661* two authors also identified as pioneers of the theory*

present four 'ehavioral dimensions characteristic in transformational leaders that will 'e

'riefly discussed under the following su'heading0

C#"+te"$st$+s of T"nsfo"mt$on* Le!e"s

3uch has 'een written on the traits and qualities of transformational leaders0 This

section underscores the characteristics presented 'y the main proponents of the theory

and those mentioned 'y other authorities on the su'@ect0

7,


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C#"+te"$st$+s f"om ),"ns

urns* one of the most influential proponents of transformational leadership

descri'es the transformational leader as a person who =loo:s for potential motives in

followers* see:s* to satisfy higher needs* and engages the full person of the follower0> The

result of this type of leadership is =a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that

converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents> Burns* 76,%*

p0 10 This author further descri'es transformational leadership as =a stream of evolving

interrelationships in which leaders are continuously evo:ing motivational responses from

followers and modifying their 'ehavior as they meet responsiveness or resistance* in a

ceaseless process of flow and counter flow> Bcited 'y 3assod* "ani* urns* and

ac:house* )++#0

C#"+te"$st$+s f"om )ss

ass* another prominent advocate of the theory* adds that transformational leaders

possess good visioning* rhetorical* and impression management s:ills that they use to

develop strong emotional 'onds with followers Bass* 76%80

According to ass* transformational leaders transform and motivate followers 'y

=B7 ma:ing them more aware of the importance of tas: outcomes* B) inducing them to

transcend their own self-order needs* and B$ activating their higher order needs> Bcited

'y 5ul:* p0 )#)0 Ta'le ) presents four 'ehavioral dimensions characteristic in

transformational leaders that they identify as four &s0 Bass H Avolio* 7661* pp0 $-10

Ta'le )DBehavioral dimensions of transformational leaders

%deali$ed influence0 Transformational leaders are not ar'itrary and 'ehave in ways

that convert them into role models for their followers who* in return* admire*

respect* and trust them0

7%


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%nspirational motivation0 Transformational leaders foster team spirit and motivate

followers with enthusiasm* optimism* good communication* and commitment toshared vision0

%ntellectual stimulation0 Transformational leaders promote creativity andinnovation 'y questioning assumptions* reframing pro'lems* and approaching oldsituations in new ways0

%ndividuali$ed consideration0 Transformational leaders pay special attention to

each individualEs needs for achievement and growth 'y acting as coach or mentor0

For this purpose* they create new learning opportunities and provide a supportive

climate0

C#"+te"$st$+s f"om Ot#e" A,t#o"s

Smith et al0 B)++1 affirm that transformational leaders inspire* motivate* and

stimulate followers intellectually and* as a result* these initiatives lead toD =role modeling*

high ethical standards* concern for the needs of others* communication of e

Transformational leaders also =strive to elevate the needs of their followers*>

stimulating positive change and motivating and energi9ing staff =to pursue mutual goals

and share visions> B3urphy* )++80 They are =motivated 'y a sense of mission to

recreate the organi9ation to survive in a challenging e BSmith et al0*

)++10 ith transformational leadership* =the followers feel trust* admiration* loyalty* and

respect toward the leader> and 'ecome motivated to =do more than they originally

e B5u:l* p0 )#)0

Mpp$n& t#e T#eo"%

Several models are availa'le to the reader on how to map theories that include

figures* graphs* and charts0 Transformational leadership theory has 'een mapped and

76


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compared with other theories such as aisse9-Faire and transactional theories BSpinelli*

)++#L 3c4uire H Nennerly* )++#L and Smith et al0* )++10

The theory mapping model presented in this chapter is the same suggested in

class* which depicts a ta'le with schematic relationships 'etween causal* intervening and

end-result varia'les0 The creation of pictorial illustrations of the theory has 'een avoided

in view of the notion taught 'y some professors of the Ph" in eadership program* that

they should not 'e included in formal papers0

The transformational leadership qualities under each varia'le* 'riefly presented 'y

'ullets* represent a synopsis of the qualities previously documented in this paper0

Ta'le $0 Transformational 'eadership Chart

CA-SAL

ARIA)LES

/T#e Le!e"0

INTERENIN

ARIA)LES

/T#e fo**oe"0

END RES-LT

ARIA)LES

/T#e o,t+ome0

3otivates H

&nspires

!levates followers

Fosters unity

Tolerant to mista:es Creates learning

opportunities

Coaches?mentors

Personali9ed

communication

Fosters needs and

values of followers

3otivated for action

4oal ownership

&ndividual needs are

supplied

Followerinvolvement

!motional 'onds

with leader

&ncreased

organi9ational

commitment

&ntellectual

stimulation

Feels valued

Staff is transformed

Positive change

Synergy in the group

2igh ethical

standards Concern for the

individual

3utual stimulation

and elevation

Convert leaders into

moral agents

&ncreased @o'

performance

)chematic relationship bet!een causal intervening and end*result variablescharacteristic of transformational leadership+

oo:ing at the varia'les depicting the relationship 'etween leader and follower*

one can notice a sym'iotic interaction that is consistent with 'i'lical teachings that

)+


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underline relationships as the heart of the gospel and Christian 'ehavior B3athew ))D$1-

1+L u:e 7+D)8-$,L Oohn 7$D$1-$80 The outcome varia'le* in particular* gives a picture

of end results compati'le with the values and high ethical standards fostered 'y the

Christian Scriptures0

T"nsfo"mt$on* T#eo"% n! C,*t,"e

eadership in most places is e


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most effective leaders are parent figures* team 'uilders* facilitators* nurturers* mentors*

and supportersQare warm and supportiveL finally* in the Bd market culturethe leaders

are tough* demanding* and focus on directing* producing results* negotiating* and

motivating others Bcited 'y 3asood* S0L "ani* S0L urns* (0L H ac:house* C0* )++#0

O"&n$t$on* C,*t,"e n! T"nsfo"mt$on* Le!e"s#$p

According to 3asood et al0 B)++#* transformational leaders prefer to wor: in an

adhocratic or clan-type of culture and prefer to create wor:ing environments with a wea:

situational strength for their followers0 & thin: these two types of culture are in tune with

church leadership that pro@ects to the future optimistically planning and organi9ing with

team 'uilding in mind* and motivating volunteers in synergistic action0 This affinity with

Christian teaching and mission is the main reason why & decided to write a'out this

theory0

Pe"son* Ref*e+t$on

There are a variety of approaches to leadership and theories disseminated in the

leadership literature ready to 'e adopted 'y leaders0 All theories emphasi9e a positive

concept of leadership* 'ut there is not a one-si9e-fits-all theory that may 'e appropriate

for every organi9ational need on the planet0

Transformational leadership theory is not clear as to how the leader can develop

the leadership traits that characteri9e this type of leader* nor is it clear as to the process it

ta:es to transform followers into a committed and colla'orating wor:ing force0 2owever*

considering the overall Christian mission to transform the worldEs thin:ing and 'ehavior

through the teachings and actions of individuals who have 'een transformed 'y the same

))


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power and philosophy* & thin: this leadership theory is one of the most appropriate for

that mission0

)$


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C2APT!R $

C2AR&S3AT&C !A"!RS2&P

This chapter provides a 'rief overview of charismatic leadership* 'eginning with

the nature and meaning of the theory0 Second* the chapter succinctly maps the main

tenets and outcomes of charismatic leadership using as a 'asis :ey concepts from the

previous section0 The elucidations on the topic proceed with a section alluding to the

dar: side of the theory0 Charismatic leadership* li:e most other theories of leadership* is

vulnera'le to e


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T#e Men$n& n! Nt,"e of C#"$sm

&n the leadership literature the charisma is 'ased on the characteristics of a leader

=who inspires and directs followers 'y 'uilding their commitment to a shared vision and

values> B2ellriegel* Slocum* oodman* )++7L Smith et al0* )++10 According to the

,xford -niversity (ress Glossarythe term is used to descri'e those leaders who can

ma:e followers feel they are =on a mission0> This source adds that the leadership a'ility

=to pro@ect positively> onto followers* can 'e associated with a =psychological>

connotation that may ascri'e to charismatic leaders =a'ilities and qualities which they do

not actually possess> B. speech is an e


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human values of the American people when he stated* =As: not what your country can do

for youL as: what you can do for your country> B(orthouse* )++,* p0 7,60

P$onee"s n! An*%sts of t#e T#eo"%

The emergence of the charismatic leadership theory in recent history is attri'uted

toMax .eber* =who used the term to descri'e a form of influence 'ased not on tradition

or formal authority 'ut rather on follower perceptions of the leader> B5u:l* p0 )160 2e

'orrowed the term from the Christian Scriptures where it is referred to as =an impartation

of the 2oly Spirit as a gift from 4od to individuals who committed their lives to Oesus>

B3iller* )++,0

BrymanB766)* in his study on the su'@ect* affirms that e'erEs writings on the

su'@ect =are highly diffuse* sometimes contradictory* and often more suggestive of what

is interesting and important in charisma than a definitive e Bp0 )$0 2is view of

the charismatic leader went =from the idea of 'eing endowed 'y 4od with special talent*

as it was originally understood from the i'le*> to a leader =who too: it upon him or

herself to convince others that their talents were indeed supernatural in some way>

B3iller* )++,0

/reud* who allegedly =identified himself with 3oses*> considered the .ld

Testament legislator as =one of the first towering KcharismaticE leaders> in history Bcited

'y urns* 76,%* p0 )170 &n Freudian terms* charismatic leadership encourages regression

such that people who are confused a'out their feeling toward those who too: care of

them may 'ecome somewhat dependent on charismatic leaders attri'uting to them the

father figure0 =Charisma is therefore 'etter seen as the outcome of a process pro@ection

rather than as a trait> B.


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0ouseB76,# is another influential proponent of the charismatic theory of

leadership0 2is theory of charisma in leadership has received a great deal of attention 'y

researchers Be0g0 Conger* 7666L 2unt H Conger* 76660 Since the pu'lication of his

concepts a'out charismatic leadership* 2ouseEs theory has 'een e


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Ta'le 10 Charismatic 'eadership Chart

CA-SAL

ARIA)LES

/T#e Le!e"0

INTERENIN

ARIA)LES

/T#e fo**oe"0

END RES-LT

ARIA)LES

/T#e o,t+ome0

"ominant "esire to influence

Confident* innovative

Strong values H

conviction

Strong role model

Shows competence

Articulates goals

Arouses motives

!


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superhuman hero or worshiped as a spiritual figure0> .ne e


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=that are li:ely to occur in organi9ations led 'y charismatic leaders> and that may

=increase the li:elihood that the leaderEs career may 'e cut shortD>

eing in awe of the leader reduces good suggestions 'y followers0

"esire for leader acceptance inhi'its criticism 'y followers0 Adoration 'y followers creates delusions of leader infalli'ility0

!


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theological 'eliefs & hold0 oth Testaments of the Christian Scriptures present leadership

as a gift that a person may 'e a'le to have and practice* even if he?she did not inherit it 'y

'irth B"eut )%D7$L 7Cor 7)D$70 The 'i'lical view of who is a leader is 'roader than the

view of current definitions of charismatic leaders0

A final danger & see associated with charismatic leadership is the leadersE

temptation to a'use of the natural influencing a'ilities they possess0 The Christian Church

is not immune to the consequences of negative charisma0 Scandals caused 'y well

:nown charismatic preachers such as Oimmy Swaggart and Oim Oones have left indeli'le

scars on many audiences and have damaged the influence of the church0

$7


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C2APT!R 1

S!R;A(T !A"!RS2&P

Since its inception in the seventies* the servant leadership concept has 'ecome

one of the =most tal:ed a'out yet least critically e

Bar'uto* heeler* )++,0 This chapter aims to provide an overview of the servant

leadership concept and apply its principles to leadership for religious organi9ations0 The

monograph 'egins summing up information regarding the origins and pioneers of the

theory in recent years0 (e


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4reenleaf conceived the servant leadership idea not from the i'leL 'ut from

reading 2emann 2esseEs2ourney to the 3ast0 2is writings clearly indicate he wanted his

readers to :now which is =the source of the idea of The servant leader> B4reenleaf* p0 %0

This fictional treatise underlines the important leadership roles e


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employees is as important as providing quality product or service for the customer>

B5u:l* )++#* p0 1)+0

The definition of service* according to 4reenleaf* includes nurturing* defending*

and empowering followers instead of using power to dominate them0 =A servant leader

must attend to the needs of followers and help them 'ecome healthier* wiser and more

willing to accept their responsi'ilities> B5u:l* p0 1)+0 The success of the servant leader is

measured in the growth of his?her followers0 &n order for servant leaders to properly

serve followers* they need to listen to their cries and learn a'out their needs and

aspirations0

4reenleafEs writing on servant leadership touched on various aspects of leadership

such as manipulation* hope* responsi'ility* and strength0 !ventually* his ideas coalesced

into a theory =consisting of ten attri'utes or characteristics of servant leaders0> ar'uto

and heeler B)++, provide a concise summary of these attri'utesD B7'isteningQthey

are genuinely interested in the views and input of others0 B) 3mpathyQthey =wal: in

otherEs shoes*> and strive to understand people0 B$0ealingQthey have a remar:a'le

appreciation for the health of others and facilitate their healing process0 B14!arenessQ

they have a :een sense of what is happening around them0 B8(ersuasionQthey see: to

convince others to do things rather than relying on formal authority0

B# Conceptuali$ationQthey nurture the a'ility to conceptuali9e the world and to dream

great dreams0 B,/oresightQthey learn from the past* the realities of the present* and

have an uncanny a'ility to anticipate future events0 B% )te!ardshipQas stewards of an

organi9ation* servant-leaders are responsi'le for preparing it for its destiny* usually for

the 'etterment of society0 B6 Commitment to the gro!th of the peopleQthey wor: hard to

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help people grow spiritually* professionally* and personally* and 'elieve that people have

something to offer 'eyond their tangi'le contri'ution0 Finally* B7+ building communityQ

servant-leaders have a strong sense of community spirit and wor: hard to foster it in an

organi9ation0 They 'elieve that in order to serve properly* an organi9ation needs to

function as a community0

The type of leadership service proposed 'y 4reenleaf impels leaders =to stand for

what is good and right* even when it is not in the financial interest of the organi9ation>

B5u:l* p0 1)+0

Se"6nt Le!e"s#$p n! C#"$st$n$t%

&s servant leadership merely a clever gimmic: or technique created 'y =wise

guys> to ma:e an easy 'uc: Should Christian leaders practice servant leadership if the

modern founder of the theory gained the idea from a fictional story "oes the servant

leadership literature offer a philosophic 'ase for the theory

Few studies have ventured in pursuit of a philosophical 'ase for the theory* to

anchor it in a particular worldview0 Attempts have 'een made to lin: it to Christianity

'ased on OesusE oracles* implying that servant leadership is a moral form of leadership0

Patterson identified seven virtues associated with servant leadershipD agap5olove*

humility* altruism* vision* trust* empowerment* and service0 allace B)++, compares

these virtues with similar virtues from Aristotelian philosophy and Christian 'elief0 Ta'le

8 illustrates his comparative analysis0

Ta'le 8D .allace6s comparison of servant leadership virtues

Aristotelian Christian Patterson 2003

Courage Chastity 4gap5oloveTemperance A'stinence ;ision

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4enerosity i'erality Altruism

Pride 2umility 2umility

Self-control Patience TrustTruthfulness Nindness !mpowerment

Oustice "iligence Service

ittinessFriendliness

Practical :nowledge

Scientific :nowledge

allaceEs list of Christian virtues does not fully represent the scope of 'i'lical

teachings on the su'@ect0 A careful scrutiny of the Christian Scriptures reveals his

omission of :nown Christian virtues attri'uted* such as friendliness* @ustice* agapelove*

trust* and service0 These virtues were attri'uted in Ta'le 8 to Patterson and Aristotle and

not to the Christian worldview0

The i'le presents ample support for the virtues accredited to servant leadership

in current literature0 2owever* the idea of servant as a virtue is a Christian quality that all

followers of Oesus should emulate* not only leaders0 Also* this term is often

misinterpreted and misused in Christian circles* giving it an anti-leadership meaning0

hat is the meaning of servant and of service A closer loo: at the meaning of these

words in the i'le is necessary to arrive at a proper Christian version of servant

leadership0

T#e Men$n& of Se"6nt Le!e"s#$p

Several words are used in the i'le to denote the idea of servant0 .ne is doulos

translated as servant or slave0 &sraelite law distinguishes 'etween hired servants and

slaves Bev )8D# ='ased upon the voluntary?involuntary character of the relationshipL>

'ut their functions are overlapping Bromiley* 76%%0 oth paid servants and slaves owed

su'ordination to their masters or lords0

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The servant concept is also used in the .ld Testament to identify the :ing-su'@ect

relationship0 All su'@ects in a :ingdom refer to the :ing as =lord> and themselves as

=servants> B) Sam 7$D)1L 7 Nings 7D7,* 'ut everyone owes 4od allegiance as 2is

servants* 'ecause he is the =ord of lords> B3al 7D#L "eut 7+D7,L Ps 7$#D$0 !ven the

:ings of &srael needed to 'e su'ordinated to 4odEs decrees and principles0

&n the (ew Testament* Christians regarded themselves as =slaves of Christ> B7Cor

,D))* or =slaves of 4od> B7Pet )D7#0 Servants in the 'i'lical conte B3att )+D)%0 2e was among his followers =as one who serves

diacon8n> Bu:e ))D),0 Christian leadership theorists used the a'ove te


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managerial tas:s* sent them to wor:* and served as leader0 Finally* he left his followers

wor:ing alone as he departed to heaven0

The word di5conoswas also used 'y the Twelve to =serve> the ta'les in BActs

#D)0 !

BActs #D) (AS0 &n a similar incident* 3oses in the .ld Testament was summoned 'y his

father-in-law for doing tas:s that detracted him from important leadership responsi'ilities

B! and kubernesis* =forms of leadership>

B7Cor 7)D)% (RS0 The spiritual gifts doctrine does not preclude Christians from having a

com'ination of gifts0 A leader can also serve0

allace* responding to the question of why leaders should practice servant

leadership declaresD ='ecause it affirms human dignity* increases the 'ond of community

'y fostering compassion and attention to peopleEs needs> Ballace* )++,0

Mpp$n& t#e Se"6nt Le!e"s#$p Con+ept

The development of servant leadership as a theory has 'een a slow process as

researchers struggle to articulate an adequate theoretical infrastructure0 allace B)++,*

$%


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lists different wor:s of theorists who have compared servant leadership with other

leadership theories and have e


40/46

in roles not related to leadership* as Phil Oac:son may help an in@ured player in personal

ways0

Finally* on the question* Should ministers practice servant leadership & conclude

with a cautious yes0 3inisters should imitate Oesus* who has served his church in

different leadership levels0 First as a true servant o'edient to deathL then as a manager

and trainerL and now as a leader who affirms human dignity* increasing the 'ond of

community 'y fostering compassion and attention to peoplesE needs0

1+


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C2APT!R 8

35 APPR.AC2 T. !A"!RS2&P A(" C.(CUS&.(

As stated in the introduction of this paper* the ultimate goal is to synthesi9e an

approach to leadership 'ased on the analysis of three popular leadership theoriesD

transformational* charismatic* and servant leadership0 The latter may not 'e viewed 'y

some as a theory* 'ut as a gimmic: or technique proliferated 'y people who want to ma:e

moneyL however* the theory can find support among serious leadership authors and the

Christian Scriptures* which are most authoritative in my line of wor:0

&n this final chapter & 'egin synthesi9ing concepts related to the three main

theories studied for this class* concluding with a revision of the main approach to

leadership* 'ased on my leadership definition0

T"nsfo"mt$on*8 C#"$sm8 n! Se"6nt Le!e"s#$p

These theories were analy9ed more in depth in this paper* for the high emphasis

they place on morality and for the affinity with leadership in church conte


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fishermen into a powerful 'and of leaders that disseminated the Christian faith

throughout the world0

& 'elieve the transformational goals and outcome of OesusE ministry should 'e

emulated 'y church leaders today* and should 'e taught 'y seminary leadership

professors0 The principles fostered 'y this theory match perfectly the goals and mission

of the ministerial profession and provides insights for what & do as a teacher of church

leadership0

"espite the dar: side of charismatic leadership* the term finds roots in the i'le

and is associated with the wor: of the 2oly Spirit0 The charismatic leadersE capacity to

articulate the mission of the institution and to motivate people for action is a desira'le

attri'ute of the theory0 Charismatic leaders have the capacity to galvani9e collective

effort and achieve positive outcomes0

hile charismatic leadership is =often descri'ed in ways that ma:e it similar to* if

not synonymous with* transformational leadership> B(orthouse* )++,* p0 7,,* & thin:

there are su'stantial differences that ma:e transformational leadership more desira'le for

religious institutions0 Although charismatic leadership e B3asood* S0L "ani* S0L urns* (0L H ac:house*

C0* )++#0

Another difference 'etween these two leadership theories is related to the leader-

follower relationship0 Contrary to transformational leadership that produces new leaders*

charismatic leaders emerge among =dependent followers> B5u:l* pp0 )87* )880

1)


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Successful leadership in church organi9ations relies on the a'ility to emancipate

followers* as Oesus did* so they can do the wor: not depending on the minister0

The servant leadership concept can find roots in the i'le* however* 4reenleaf*

the theorist who resurrected the idea in the seventies* conceived the concept from reading

fictional literature0 Servant leadership is 'ased on the idealistic philosophy of nurturing*

defending* and empowering followers instead of using power to dominate them0

Unfortunately* the term is often interpreted in a way that presents leaders as 'eing slavish

or su'servient to followers* which is adversative to the leadership concept0

According to the 'i'lical meaning of servant* this is a Christian quality that all

followers of Oesus should emulate* not only leaders0 Some principles of servant

leadership such as affirming human dignity and increasing the 'ond of community 'y

fostering compassion and attention to peopleEs needs* are principles all responsi'le

citi9ens should emulate0 "oes that ma:e everyone a leader 3y response is negative

'ecause universali9ing such criteria would certainly dilute the significance of 'eing a

leader and would militate against the reality of our society* where very few people

function as leaders* even in Christian churches0

M% Def$n$t$on n! App"o+# to Le!e"s#$p

3y leadership definition is 'ased on the 'i'lical premise that leaders are 'oth

'orn and made0 &t ta:es into the equation the church setting* where successful leadership

ta:es place in the conte


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!ffective ministers form spiritual leaders who desire to serve their ord0

3inisters should create an atmosphere where new leaders can arise among group

mem'ers and church departments in the a'sence of a recogni9ed leader* or when

circumstances crave the need for someone to ta:e charge0 2ence* my definitionD

=eadership is a special a'ility that individuals can develop to transform people and

motivate them to achieve positive end results Boutcomes0>

This definition 'y no means pretends to 'e designed to 'e universally applica'le

for all leadership settings0 There is not a one-si9e-fits-all definition of leadership that is

appropriate for every organi9ation on the planet0 3y definition considers the church

setting and the preparation of leaders for ministry0

&t should 'e o'served that residue of the characteristics of two of the main

theories studied for this paper have 'een included in my definition0 =Transform> from

transformational theory and =motivate> from charisma0 This definition is important and

has a pivotal role in my approach to leadershipD Motivating follo!ers to transform the

!orld+

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R!F!R!(C! &ST

ar'uto* O0 H heeler* "0 B)++,0 =ecoming a servant leaderD "o you have what it

ta:es>1eb Guide0 University of (e'ras:a0 Retrived (ovem'er 7* )++, fromhttpD??www0ianrpu's0unl0edu?epu'lic?live?g71%7?'uild?g71%70pdf

ass* 0 B76%80'eadership and performance beyond expectations0 (ew 5or:D FreePress0

ass* 030 H Avolio* 0O0 Beds00 B76610%mproving organi$ational effectiveness throughtransformational leadership0 Thousand .a:s* CAD Sage Pu'lications0

romiley* 40 B!d00 B76%%0 The international standard Bible encyclopedia0 S0v0* =servant*slave0> 4rand RapidsD illiam !erdmans Pu'lishing Company0

urns* O0 B76,%0'eadership0 (ew 5or:D 2arper H Row0

Cole* 40 A0 B76660Management" Theory and (racticeB8th!d00 "0P0 Pu'lications*ondon0

Covey, S. (1989). The 7 habits of highly eective people New York: Simonand Schuster.

"ownton* O0 ;0 B76,$0&ebel 'eadership" Commitment and Charisma in the&evolutionary (rocess0 (ew 5or:D The Free Press0

and* 40 B76,$0 Gro! or die" The unifying principle of transformation0 (ew 5or:DRandom 2ouse0

ewin* "0 B76%,0 Generali$ed Musical %ntervals and Transformations+(ew 5or:Duorum oo:s0

3c4uire* !0 H Nennerly* S0 B)++#* Ouly-August0 (urse managers as transformational

and transactional leaders01ursing 3conomic:+)1B1* 7,6-7%80

3alphurs* A0 B)+++0 )trategic planning" 4 ne! model for church and ministry leaders+4rand RapidsD a:er oo:s0

3assod* S0* "ani* S0* urns* (0* and ac:house* C0 B)++#0 Transformational leadership

and organi9ational cultureD the situational strength perspective0 Oournal of

!ngineering 3anufacture* ))+ BPart * 617-6160

18
http://www.ianrpubs/http://www.ianrpubs/


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3oiden* (0 B)++)0 !volution of leadership in nursing0 1ursing Management* 6 B,* )+-)80

3urphy* 0 B)++80 Transformational leadershipD a cascading chain reaction02ournal of1ursing Management7$* 7)%-7$#0

Smith* 0L 3ontagno* R0* H Nu9men:o* T0 B)++10 Transformational and servant

leadershipD Content and conte

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